RLI CORP

RLI Corp. is an insurance holding company. References to “the Company,” “we,” “our,” “us” or like terms refer to the business of RLI Corp. and its subsidiaries. We underwrite select property, casualty and surety products through major subsidiaries collectively known as RLI Insurance Group. We conduct operations principally through three insurance companies. RLI Insurance Company (RLI Ins.), a subsidiary of RLI Corp. and our principal insurance subsidiary, writes multiple lines of insurance on an admitted basis in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands and Guam. Mt. Hawley Insurance Company (Mt. Hawley), a subsidiary of RLI Ins., writes excess and surplus lines insurance on a non-admitted basis in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands and Guam. Contractors Bonding and Insurance Company (CBIC), a subsidiary of RLI Ins., writes multiple lines of insurance on an admitted basis in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.

The accompanying consolidated financial statements were prepared in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States of America (GAAP), which differ in some respects from those followed in reports to insurance regulatory authorities. The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of our holding company and our subsidiaries. Intercompany balances and transactions have been eliminated.

On January 15, 2025, RLI Corp. effected atwo-for-one split of its common stock and a proportionate increase in the number of authorized shares. All share and per share information throughout this report has been retroactively adjusted to reflect the stock split. The shares of common stock retain a par value of $0.01 per share. Accordingly, an amount equal to the par value of the increased shares resulting from the stock split was reclassified from paid-in capital to common stock.

The Company has evaluated subsequent events through the date these consolidated financial statements were issued. There were no other subsequent events requiring adjustment to the financial statements or disclosure.

2023-07—Segment Reporting (Topic 280): Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures

The amendments in this Accounting Standards Update (ASU) require the disclosures of significant expenses that are regularly provided to the chief operating decision maker (CODM) and included within each segment’s reported measure of profit or loss. Additionally, the ASU requires the disclosure of the title of the CODM and an explanation of how the CODM uses the reported measure of a segment’s profit or loss in assessing performance and deciding how to allocate resources. We adopted ASU 2023-07 in 2024 using a retrospective approach, providing disclosures for all periods presented in the financial statements. The adoption of this ASU did not have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

2023-09—Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures

The guidance in ASU 2023-09 is designed to increase transparency about income tax information through improvements to the tax rate reconciliation and disclosure of income taxes paid, disaggregated by federal, state and foreign jurisdictions. This ASU is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024. Although the Company continues to evaluate the impact of adopting this new accounting standard, the amendments are disclosure-related and should not have a material impact on our financial statements.

2024-03—Income Statement-Reporting Comprehensive Income-Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses

The guidance in ASU 2024-03 requires disaggregation of certain expenses into specified categories in the notes to the financial statements. Each relevant expense caption on the face of the statement of earnings that includes specific expenses, such as employee compensation, depreciation and intangible asset amortization, are required to be separately disclosed in a tabular presentation. Additionally, a separate total of selling expenses is required to be disclosed, along with a definition of what is included in selling expenses.

This ASU is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2026 and interim periods beginning after December 15, 2027. Although the Company continues to evaluate the impact of adopting this new accounting standard, the amendments are disclosure-related and should not have a material impact on our financial statements.

Equity securities are carried at fair value with unrealized gains and losses recorded within net earnings. Investments in fixed income securities are classified into one of three categories: trading, held-to-maturity or available-for-sale. All of our fixed income securities are classified as available-for-sale and reported at fair value. Unrealized gains and losses on these securities are excluded from net earnings but are recorded as a separate component of comprehensive earnings and shareholders’ equity, net of deferred income taxes.

Interest on fixed maturities and short-term investments is credited to earnings on an accrual basis. Premiums and discounts are amortized or accreted over the lives of the related fixed maturities. Dividends on equity securities are credited to earnings on the ex-dividend date. Realized gains and losses on disposition of investments are based on the specific identification of the investments sold on the settlement date.

Cash consists of uninvested balances in bank accounts. Short-term investments consist of investments with original maturities of 90 days or less, primarily AAA-rated government money market funds. Short-term investments are carried at cost. Other invested assets include investments in low-income housing tax credit (LIHTC) and historic tax credit (HTC) partnerships, membership in the Federal Home Loan Bank of Chicago (FHLBC) and investments in private funds. Our LIHTC and HTC investments are carried at amortized cost, and our investment in FHLBC stock is carried at cost. Due to the nature of cash, the LIHTC and HTC partnerships, and our membership in the FHLBC, their carrying amounts approximate fair value. The private funds are carried at fair value, using each investment’s net asset value.

Ceded unearned premiums and reinsurance balances recoverable on unpaid losses and settlement expenses are reported separately as an asset, rather than being netted with the related liability, since reinsurance does not relieve the Company of our liability to policyholders. Such balances are subject to the credit risk associated with the individual reinsurer. We continually monitor the financial condition of our reinsurers and actively follow up on any past due or disputed amounts. As part of our monitoring efforts, we review reinsurers’ annual financial statements and SEC filings for those that are publicly traded. We also review insurance industry developments that may impact the financial condition of our reinsurers. We analyze the credit risk associated with our reinsurance balances recoverable by monitoring the AM Best and S&P ratings of our reinsurers. In addition, we subject our reinsurance balances recoverable to detailed recoverability tests, including a segment-based analysis using the average default rating percentage by S&P rating, which assists the Company in assessing the sufficiency of its allowance. Additionally, we perform an in-depth reinsurer financial condition analysis prior to the renewal of our reinsurance placements.

Our policy is to charge to earnings, in the form of an allowance, an estimate of unrecoverable amounts from reinsurers. This allowance is reviewed on an ongoing basis to ensure that the amount makes a reasonable provision for reinsurance balances that we may be unable to recover. Once regulatory action (such as receivership, finding of insolvency, order of conservation or order of liquidation) is taken against a reinsurer, the paid and unpaid recoverable for the reinsurer are specifically identified and written off through the use of our allowance for estimated unrecoverable amounts from reinsurers. When we write-off such a balance, it is done in full. We then re-evaluate the remaining allowance and determine whether the balance is sufficient and, if needed, an additional allowance is recognized.

We defer incremental direct costs that relate to the successful acquisition of new or renewal insurance contracts, including commissions and premium taxes. Acquisition-related costs may be deemed ineligible for deferral when they are based on contingent or performance criteria beyond the basic acquisition of the insurance contract or when efforts to obtain or renew the insurance contract are unsuccessful. All eligible costs are capitalized and charged to expense in proportion to premium revenue recognized. The method followed in computing deferred policy acquisition costs limits the amount of such deferred costs to their estimated realizable value. This process contemplates the premiums to be earned, anticipated losses and settlement expenses and certain other costs expected to be incurred, but does not consider investment income. Judgments as to the ultimate recoverability of such deferred costs are reviewed

on a segment basis and are highly dependent upon estimated future loss costs associated with the premiums written. This deferral methodology applies to both gross and ceded premiums and acquisition costs.

Property and equipment are presented at cost less accumulated depreciation and are depreciated on a straight-line basis over periods ranging from 3 to 10 years for equipment and up to 30 years for buildings and improvements.

Our investment in Prime Holdings Insurance Services, Inc. (Prime) is accounted for under the equity method. As of December 31, 2024, we had a 23 percent interest in the equity and earnings of Prime. Prime writes business throughtwo Illinois domiciled insurance carriers, Prime Insurance Company, an excess and surplus lines company, and Prime Property and Casualty Insurance Inc., an admitted insurance company. Our investment in Prime was $56 million at December 31, 2024 and 2023. In 2024, we recorded $5 million in investee losses from Prime, compared to investee earnings of $10 million in 2023 and $13 million in 2022. The loss in 2024 is reflective of Prime strengthening reserves on a number of prior accident years. Additionally, we maintain a quota share reinsurance treaty with Prime, which contributed $9 million of gross premiums written and $8 million of net premiums earned during 2024, compared to $7 million of gross premiums written and $13 million of net premiums earned during 2023, and $21 million of gross premiums written and $23 million of net premiums earned during 2022. The decrease in gross premiums written and net premiums earned from 2022 was attributable to a reduction of our participation in the quota share reinsurance treaty in 2023, as well as the competitive market in which Prime operates.

Prime recorded a net loss of $36 million in 2024, compared to net income of $45 million in 2023 and $59 million in 2022. Additional summarized financial information for Prime as of 2024 and 2023 is outlined in the following table:

Approximately $54 million of undistributed earnings from our equity method investees were included in our retained earnings as of December 31, 2024. We received $3 million of dividends from Prime in 2024. We didnot receive any dividends from our equity method investees during 2023 or 2022.

We perform annual impairment reviews of our investments in unconsolidated investees, which take into consideration current valuation and operating results. Based upon the most recent reviews, the assets were not impaired.

The composition of goodwill and intangibles at December 31, 2024 and 2023, is detailed in the following table:

As the amortization of goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets is not permitted, the assets are tested for impairment on an annual basis, or earlier if there is reason to suspect that their values may have been diminished or impaired. Annual impairment testing was performed on each of our goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets during 2024. Based upon these reviews, our goodwill and state insurance license indefinite-lived intangible assets were not impaired. In addition, as of December 31, 2024, there were no triggering events on goodwill and intangible assets that would suggest an updated review was necessary.

The liability for unpaid losses and settlement expenses represents estimates of amounts needed to pay reported and unreported claims and related expenses. The estimates are based on certain actuarial and other assumptions related to the ultimate cost to settle such claims. Such assumptions are subject to occasional changes due to evolving economic, social and political conditions. All estimates are periodically reviewed and, as experience develops and new information becomes known, the reserves are adjusted as necessary. Such adjustments are reflected in the results of operations in the period in which they are determined. Due to the inherent uncertainty in estimating reserves for losses and settlement expenses, there can be no assurance that the ultimate liability will not exceed recorded amounts. If actual liabilities do exceed recorded amounts, there will be an adverse effect. Furthermore, we may determine that recorded reserves are more than adequate to cover expected losses, which would lead to a reduction in our reserves.

Insurance premiums are recognized ratably over the term of the contracts, net of ceded reinsurance. Our policies are short-term in nature and premium is generally earned over a one-year period. Unearned premiums are calculated on a monthly pro rata basis.

We file a consolidated federal income tax return. Federal income taxes are accounted for using the asset and liability method under which deferred income taxes are recognized for the tax consequences of temporary differences by applying enacted statutory tax rates applicable to future years to differences between the financial statement carrying amounts and the tax bases of existing assets and liabilities, operating losses and tax credit carry forwards. The effect on deferred taxes for a change in tax rates is recognized in income in the period that includes the enactment date. Deferred tax assets are reduced by a valuation allowance if it is more likely than not that all or some of the deferred tax assets will not be realized.

We consider uncertainties in income taxes and recognize those in our financial statements as required. As it relates to uncertainties in income taxes, our unrecognized tax benefits, including interest and penalty accruals, are not considered material to the consolidated financial statements. Also, no tax uncertainties are expected to result in significant increases or decreases to unrecognized tax benefits within the next 12-month period. Penalties and interest related to income tax uncertainties, should they occur, would be included in income tax expense in the period in which they are incurred.

As an insurance company, we are subject to minimal state income tax liabilities. Since the majority of our income on a state basis is from insurance operations, we pay premium taxes, which are calculated as a percentage of gross premiums written in lieu of state income taxes. Premium taxes are a component of policy acquisition costs.

Basic earnings per share (EPS) is computed by dividing income available to common shareholders by the weighted-average number of common shares outstanding for the period. Diluted EPS reflects the dilution that could occur if securities or other contracts to issue common stock or common stock equivalents were exercised or converted into common stock. When inclusion of these items increases the earnings per share or reduces the loss per share, the effect on earnings is anti-dilutive. Under these circumstances, the diluted net earnings or net loss per share is computed excluding these items. The following represents a reconciliation of the numerator and denominator of the basic and diluted EPS computations contained in the consolidated financial statements:

Our comprehensive earnings include net earnings plus after-tax unrealized gains and losses on our available-for-sale fixed income portfolio. In reporting the components of comprehensive earnings, we used the federal statutory tax rate of 21 percent. Other comprehensive income (loss), as shown in the consolidated statements of earnings and comprehensive earnings, is net of tax expense (benefit) of $(2) million, $17 million and $(74) million for 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

The table below illustrates the changes in the balance of each component of accumulated other comprehensive earnings for each period presented in the consolidated financial statements.

Credit losses or the sale of an available-for-sale security resulted in amounts being reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive earnings to current period net earnings. The effects of reclassifications out of accumulated other comprehensive earnings by the respective line items of net earnings are presented in the following table.

Fair value is defined as the price in the principal market that would be received for an asset to facilitate an orderly transaction between market participants on the measurement date. We determined the fair value of certain financial instruments based on their underlying characteristics and relevant transactions in the marketplace. We maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs when measuring fair value.

The following are the levels of the fair value hierarchy and a brief description of the type of valuation inputs that are used to establish each level. Financial assets are classified based upon the lowest level of significant input that is used to determine fair value.

Level 1 is applied to valuations based on readily available, unadjusted quoted prices in active markets for identical assets.

Level 2 is applied to valuations based upon quoted prices for similar assets in active markets, quoted prices for identical or similar assets in inactive markets; or valuations based on models where the significant inputs are observable (e.g. interest rates, yield curves, prepayment speeds, default rates, loss severities) or can be corroborated by observable market data.

Level 3 is applied to valuations that are derived from techniques in which one or more of the significant inputs are unobservable.

As a part of management’s process to determine fair value, we utilize widely recognized, third-party pricing sources to determine our fair values. We have obtained an understanding of the third-party pricing sources’ valuation methodologies and inputs. The following is a description of the valuation techniques used for financial assets that are measured at fair value, including the general classification of such assets pursuant to the fair value hierarchy.

Corporate, Agencies, Government and Municipal Bonds: The pricing vendor employs a multi-dimensional model which uses standard inputs including (listed in approximate order of priority for use) benchmark yields, reported trades, broker/dealer quotes, issuer spreads, two-sided markets, benchmark securities, market bids/offers and other reference data. The pricing vendor also monitors market indicators, as well as industry and economic events. All bonds valued using these techniques are classified as Level 2. All Corporate, Agencies, Government and Municipal securities are deemed Level 2.

**Mortgage-backed Securities (MBS)/Collateralized Mortgage-backed Securities (CMBS) and Asset-backed Securities (ABS):**The pricing vendor evaluation methodology includes principally interest rate movements and new issue data. Evaluation of the tranches (nonvolatile, volatile or credit sensitivity) is based on the pricing vendors’ interpretation of accepted modeling and pricing conventions. This information is then used to determine the cash flows for each tranche, benchmark yields, pre-payment assumptions and to incorporate collateral performance. To evaluate MBS and CMBS volatility, an option adjusted spread model is used in combination with models that simulate interest rate paths to determine market price information. This process allows the pricing vendor to obtain evaluations of a broad universe of securities in a way that reflects changes in yield curve, index rates, implied volatility, mortgage rates and recent trade activity. MBS/CMBS and ABS with corroborated, observable inputs are classified as Level 2. All of our MBS/CMBS and ABS are deemed Level 2.

**Regulation D Private Placement Securities:**All Regulation D privately placed bonds are classified as corporate or non-U.S. government securities and deemed Level 3. The pricing vendor evaluation methodology for these securities includes a combination of

observable and unobservable inputs. Observable inputs include public corporate spread matrices classified by sector, rating and average life, as well as investment and non-investment grade matrices created from fixed income indices. Unobservable inputs include a liquidity spread premium calculated based on public corporate spread and private corporate spread matrices. The quantitative detail of the liquidity spread premium is neither provided nor reasonably available to the Company.

For all of our fixed income securities classified as Level 2, we periodically conduct a review to assess the reasonableness of the fair values provided by our pricing services. Our review consists of a two-pronged approach. First, we compare prices provided by our pricing services to those provided by an additional source. In some cases, we obtain prices from securities brokers and compare them to the prices provided by our pricing services. If discrepancies are found in our comparisons, we compare our prices to actual reported trade data for like securities. No changes to the fair values supplied by our pricing services have occurred as a result of our reviews. Based on these assessments, we have determined that the fair values of our Level 2 fixed income securities provided by our pricing services are reasonable.

Equity Securities: As of December 31, 2024, nearly all of our equity holdings were traded on an exchange. Exchange traded equities have readily observable price levels and are classified as Level 1 (fair value based on quoted market prices). Equity securities not traded on an exchange, for which pricing is provided by a third-party pricing source using observable inputs, are classified as Level 2. Equity securities not traded on an exchange and that rely on one or more unobservable inputs in pricing are classified as Level 3.

Due to the relatively short-term nature of cash, short-term investments, accounts receivable and accounts payable, their carrying amounts are reasonable estimates of fair value. Our investments in private funds, classified as other invested assets, are measured using the investments’ net asset value per share and are not categorized within the fair value hierarchy. The fair value of our debt is discussed further in note 3 to the consolidated financial statements.

We expense the estimated fair value of employee stock options and similar awards. We measure compensation cost for awards of equity instruments to employees based on the grant-date fair value of those awards and recognize compensation expense over the service period that the awards are expected to vest. The tax effects related to share-based payments are made through net earnings. See note 7 to the consolidated financial statements for further discussion and related disclosures regarding stock options.

Certain risks and uncertainties are inherent in our day-to-day operations and in the process of preparing our consolidated financial statements. The more significant risks and uncertainties, as well as our attempt to mitigate, quantify and minimize such risks, are presented below and throughout the notes to the consolidated financial statements.

Insurance Risks

We compete with a large number of other companies in our selected lines of business. During periods of intense competition for premium, we are vulnerable to the actions of other companies who may seek to write business without the appropriate regard for risk and profitability. The insurance industry is often highly competitive, which can make it difficult to grow or maintain premium volume without sacrificing underwriting discipline and income. Our profitability can be significantly affected by the ability of our underwriters to accurately select and price risk and our claim personnel to appropriately deliver fair outcomes. We attempt to mitigate this risk by incentivizing our underwriters to maximize underwriting profit and remain disciplined in pricing and selecting risks. If we are unable to compete effectively in the markets in which we operate or expand our operations into new markets, our underwriting revenues may decline, as well as overall business results.

Our loss reserves are based on estimates and may be inadequate to cover our actual insured losses, which would negatively impact our profitability. As of December 31, 2024, we had $2.7 billion of gross loss and LAE reserves. Significant periods of time often elapse between the occurrence of an insured loss, the reporting of the loss to the Company and our payment of that loss. As part of the reserving process, we review historical data and consider the impact of various factors such as trends in claim frequency and severity, emerging economic and social trends, inflation and changes in the regulatory and litigation environments. If the actual amount of insured losses is greater than the amount we have reserved for these losses, our profitability would suffer.

Catastrophe Exposures

Our insurance coverages include exposure to catastrophic events. We monitor catastrophe exposures by quantifying our exposed policy limits in each region and by using computer-assisted modeling techniques. Additionally, we limit our risk to such catastrophes by restraining the total policy limits written in each region and by purchasing reinsurance. Our major catastrophe exposure is to losses caused by windstorms, affecting commercial properties in coastal regions of the United States, and earthquakes, primarily on the West Coast. We are also exposed to convective storms, winter weather, wildfires, lava flows in Hawaii as well as terrorist events in the United States.

In 2024, our property catastrophe reinsurance treaty had limits of $850 million in excess of $25 million first-dollar retention for earthquakes in California, $850 million in excess of a $50 million first-dollar retention for earthquakes outside of California and $750 million in excess of a $50 million first-dollar retention for all other perils, including wind. In addition, we have coverages that may reduce first-dollar retentions for multiple events within an established period of time. All of these amounts were subject to certain co-participations by the Company on losses in excess of the first-dollar retentions.

The majority of our catastrophe reinsurance treaty renewed on January 1, 2025. We purchased the same limits over the same first-dollar retention amounts outlined above. The program was 100 percent placed with a portion of the first layer expiring on May 31, 2025. We actively manage our catastrophe program to keep our net retention in line with risk tolerances and to optimize the risk/return trade off.

Environmental Liability Exposures

We are subject to environmental liability claims and exposures primarily through our commercial excess, general liability and discontinued assumed casualty reinsurance lines of business. Although exposure to environmental claims exists in these lines of business, we seek to mitigate or control the extent of this exposure on the vast majority of this business. Our policies include pollution exclusions that have been continually updated to further strengthen them and our policies primarily cover moderate hazard risks.

We offer coverage for low to moderate environmental liability exposures for small contractors and asbestos and mold remediation specialists. We also provide limited coverage for individually underwritten underground storage tanks. The overall exposure is mitigated by focusing on smaller risks with low to moderate exposures. Risks that have large-scale exposures are avoided including petrochemical, chemical, mining, manufacturers and other risks that might be exposed to superfund sites. This business is covered under our casualty ceded reinsurance treaties.

We made loss and settlement expense payments on environmental liability claims and have loss and settlement expense reserves for others. We include this historical environmental loss experience with the remaining loss experience in the applicable line of business to project ultimate incurred losses and settlement expenses as well as related incurred but not reported (IBNR) loss and settlement expense reserves.

Although historical experience on environmental liability claims may not accurately reflect future environmental exposures, we used this experience to record loss and settlement expense reserves in the exposed lines of business. See further discussion of environmental exposures in note 5 to the consolidated financial statements.

Reinsurance

Reinsurance does not discharge the Company from our primary liability to policyholders, and to the extent that a reinsurer is unable to meet its obligations, we would be liable. We continuously monitor the financial condition of prospective and existing reinsurers. As a result, we purchase reinsurance from a number of financially strong reinsurers. We provide an allowance for reinsurance balances deemed uncollectible. See further discussion of reinsurance exposures in note 4 to the consolidated financial statements.

Investment Risk

Our investment portfolio is subject to market, credit and interest rate risks. The equity portfolio will fluctuate with movements in the overall stock market. While the equity portfolio has been constructed to have lower downside risk than the market, the portfolio is positively correlated with movements in domestic stocks. The bond portfolio is affected by interest rate changes and movement in credit spreads. We attempt to mitigate our interest rate and credit risks by constructing a well-diversified portfolio with high-quality securities with varied maturities. Downturns in the financial markets could have a negative effect on our portfolio. However, we attempt to manage this risk through asset allocation, duration and security selection.

Liquidity Risk

Liquidity is essential to our business and a key component of our concept of asset-liability matching. Our liquidity may be impaired by an inability to collect premium receivable or reinsurance balances recoverable in a timely manner, an inability to sell assets or redeem our investments, an inability to access funds from our insurance subsidiaries, unforeseen outflows of cash or large claim payments or an inability to access debt or equity capital markets. This situation may arise due to circumstances that we may be unable to control, such as a general market disruption, an operational problem that affects third parties or the Company, or even by the perception among market participants that we, or other market participants, are experiencing greater liquidity risk.

Our credit ratings are important to our liquidity. A reduction in our credit ratings could adversely affect our liquidity and competitive position by increasing our borrowing costs or limiting our access to the capital markets.

Financial Statements

The preparation of the accompanying consolidated financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions about future events. These estimates and the underlying assumptions affect the amounts of assets and liabilities reported, disclosures about contingent assets and liabilities and reported amounts of revenues and expenses. The most significant of these amounts is the liability for unpaid losses and settlement expenses. Other estimates include investment valuation, the allowance for credit losses on fixed income securities, the collectability of reinsurance balances, recoverability of deferred tax assets and deferred policy acquisition costs. These estimates and assumptions are based on management’s best estimates and judgment. Management evaluates its estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis using historical experience and other factors, including the current economic environment, which management believes to be reasonable under the circumstances. We adjust such estimates and assumptions when facts and circumstances dictate. Although recorded estimates are supported by actuarial computations and other supportive data, the estimates are ultimately based on our expectations of future events. As future events and their effects cannot be determined with precision, actual results could differ significantly from these estimates. Changes in those estimates resulting from continuing changes in the economic environment will be reflected in the consolidated financial statements in future periods.

External Factors

Our insurance subsidiaries are highly regulated by the state in which they are incorporated and by the states in which they do business. Such regulations, among other things, limit the amount of dividends, impose restrictions on the amount and types of investments, impose regulations on forms and regulate rates insurers may charge for various coverages. We are also subject to insolvency and guaranty fund assessments for various programs designed to ensure policyholder indemnification. We generally accrue an assessment during the period in which it becomes probable that a liability has been incurred from an insolvency and the amount of the related assessment can be reasonably estimated.

The National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC) has developed Property and Casualty Risk-Based Capital (RBC) standards that relate an insurer’s reported statutory surplus to the risks inherent in its overall operations. The RBC formula uses the statutory annual statement to calculate the minimum indicated capital level to support investment and underwriting risk. The NAIC model law calls for various levels of regulatory action based on the magnitude of an indicated RBC capital deficiency, if any. We regularly monitor our subsidiaries’ internal capital requirements and the NAIC’s RBC developments. As of December 31, 2024, we determined that our capital levels are well in excess of the minimum capital requirements for all RBC action levels and that our capital levels are sufficient to support the level of risk inherent in our operations. See note 8 to the consolidated financial statements for further discussion of statutory information and related insurance regulatory restrictions.

In addition, ratings are a critical factor in establishing the competitive position of insurance companies. Our insurance companies are rated by AM Best, S&P and Moody’s. Their ratings reflect their opinions of an insurance company’s and an insurance holding company’s financial strength, operating performance, strategic position and ability to meet its obligations to policyholders.

Our investments are primarily composed of fixed income debt securities and common stock equity securities. All of our debt securities are classified as available-for-sale, which are carried at fair value. Our equity portfolio consists of common stocks and exchange traded funds (ETF), which are carried at fair value.

A summary of net investment income for the years ended December 31 are summarized below.

Pretax net realized gains (losses) and net changes in unrealized gains (losses) on investments for the years ended December 31 are summarized below.

The change in the portfolio’s unrealized gain (loss) position was due to strong equity market returns during the year, which were partially offset by a decrease in the unrealized value of fixed income securities.

The following is a summary of the disposition of fixed income securities and equities for the years ended December 31, with separate presentations for sales and calls/maturities:

FAIR VALUE MEASUREMENTS

Assets measured at fair value on a recurring basis as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, are summarized below:

The following table summarizes changes in the balance of securities whose fair value was measured using significant unobservable inputs (Level 3).

The amortized cost and estimated fair value of fixed income securities at December 31, 2024, by contractual maturity, are shown as follows:

*Asset-backed, commercial mortgage-backed and mortgage-backed securities

Expected maturities may differ from contractual maturities due to call provisions on some existing securities.

The amortized cost and fair value of available-for-sale securities at December 31, 2024 and 2023 are presented in the tables below. Amortized cost does not include the $27 million and $23 million of accrued interest receivable as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively.

ALLOWANCE FOR CREDIT LOSSES AND UNREALIZED LOSSES ON FIXED INCOME SECURITIES

A reversible allowance for credit losses is required to be recognized on available-for-sale fixed income securities. Available-for-sale securities in the fixed income portfolio are subjected to several criteria to determine if those securities should be included in the allowance for expected credit loss evaluation, including:

If changes in interest rates and credit spreads do not reasonably explain the unrealized loss for an available-for-sale security, or if any of the criteria above indicate a potential credit loss, the security is subjected to a discounted cash flow analysis. Inputs into the discounted cash flow analysis include prepayment assumptions for structured securities, default rates and recoverability rates based on credit rating. The allowance for any security is limited to the amount that the fair value is below amortized cost. As of December 31, 2024, the discounted cash flow analysis resulted in an allowance for credit losses oneight securities. The following table presents changes in the allowance for expected credit losses on available-for-sale securities:

Net realized gains included less than $1 million of losses on fixed income securities for which the cost basis was written down to fair value due to a credit event, restructurings and losses on securities for which we no longer had the intent to hold until recovery. In 2023, $2 million in such losses were recognized. We believe we will recover the amortized cost basis of available-for-sale securities that remain in an unrealized loss position.

As of December 31, 2024, in addition to the securities included in the allowance for credit losses, the fixed income portfolio contained 1,333 securities with an unrealized loss position for which an allowance for credit losses had not been recorded. The $225 million in associated unrealized losses represents 7 percent of the fixed income portfolio’s cost basis and 5 percent of total invested

assets. Isolated to these securities, unrealized losses at the end of 2024 increased compared to the previous year due to interest rates, beyond two years to maturity, rising over the course of the year. Of the total 1,333 securities,1,009 have been in an unrealized loss position for 12 consecutive months or longer. The following table illustrates the total value of fixed income securities that were in an unrealized loss position as of December 31, 2024 and 2023. We believe we will recover the amortized cost basis of available-for-sale securities that remain in an unrealized loss position.

OTHER INVESTED ASSETS

We had $58 million of other invested assets at December 31, 2024, compared to $59 million at the end of 2023. Other invested assets include investments in low-income housing tax credit partnerships (LIHTC) and historic tax credit partnerships (HTC), membership stock in the Federal Home Loan Bank of Chicago (FHLBC) and investments in private funds. Our LIHTC and HTC investments are carried at amortized cost and our investment in FHLBC stock is carried at cost. Due to the nature of the LIHTC, HTC and our membership in the FHLBC, their carrying amounts approximate fair value. The private funds are carried at fair value, using each investments’ net asset value.

Our LIHTC interests had a balance of $7 million at December 31, 2024, compared to $10 million at December 31, 2023. Our LIHTC interests recognized amortization of $3 million as a component of income tax expense in 2024, 2023 and 2022 and was included in the net earnings line item of the statement of cash flows. Additionally, our LIHTC recognized a total tax benefit of $3

million during 2024, 2023 and 2022. Our unfunded commitment for our LIHTC investments was less than $1 million at December 31, 2024 and will be paid out in installments through 2035.

Our HTC investment had a balance of $15 million at December 31, 2024, compared to $13 million at December 31, 2023. Through 2022, the investment was accounted for as an investment in unconsolidated investee. Due to the adoption of ASU 2023-02,Accounting for Investments in Tax Credit Structures Using the Proportional Amortization Method, the investment was reclassified as an other invested asset during 2023. A total tax benefit of $6 million was recognized from our HTC investment during 2024, compared to $6 million during 2023 and $5 million during 2022. Our HTC recognized $4 million of amortization as a component of income tax expense during 2024 and 2023 and was included in the net earnings line item of the statement of cash flows.

Our investments in private funds totaled $24 million at December 31, 2024 and $28 million at December 31, 2023. We had $4 million of associated unfunded commitments at December 31, 2024. Our interest in private funds is generally restricted from being transferred or otherwise redeemed without prior consent by the respective entities and the timed dissolution of the partnerships would trigger redemption.

Restricted Assets

As of December 31, 2024, $53 million of investments were pledged as collateral with the FHLBC to ensure timely access to the secured lending facility that ownership of the FHLBC stock provides. On November 12, 2024, RLI Insurance Company borrowed $50 million from the FHLBC, which was outstanding as of December 31, 2024.

As of December 31, 2024, fixed income securities with a carrying value of $93 million were on deposit with regulatory authorities as required by law.

As of December 31, 2024, outstanding debt balances totaled $100 million.

On September 15, 2023, we accessed $50 million from our revolving line of credit with PNC Bank, N.A. (PNC). The borrowing may be repaid at any time and carries an adjustable interest rate of 5.98 percent as of the end of 2024. The credit facility with PNC was entered into during the first quarter of 2023 and replaced the previous $60 million facility with Bank of Montreal, Chicago Branch, which expired on March 27, 2023. The line of credit permits us to borrow up to an aggregate principal amount of $100 million, but may be increased up to an aggregate principal amount of $130 million under certain conditions. The facility has athree-year term that expires on May 29, 2026.

On November 12, 2024, we repaid $50 million that was borrowed from the Federal Home Loan Bank of Chicago (FHLBC) in 2023 and paid interest monthly at an annualized rate of 5.44 percent. Additionally, on November 12, 2024 we borrowed $50 million from the FHLBC. The borrowing matures on November 12, 2025 and monthly interest is paid at an annualized rate of 4.44 percent.

Due to the lack of marketability and short tenor of our borrowings, the fair value of our debt approximates the carrying value. We paid $6 million of interest on our debt in 2024, compared to $9 million in 2023 and $8 million in 2022. The average rate on debt was 6.05 percent in 2024,4.07 percent in 2023 and 3.89 percent in 2022. The weighted average interest rate on debt outstanding was 5.21 percent as of December 31, 2024.

In the ordinary course of business, our insurance subsidiaries assume and cede premiums and selected insured risks with other insurance companies, known as reinsurance. There are several types of treaties including quota share, excess of loss and catastrophe reinsurance contracts that protect against losses over stipulated amounts arising from any one occurrence or event. The arrangements allow the Company to pursue greater diversification of business and serve to limit the maximum net loss to a single event, such as a catastrophe. Through the quantification of exposed policy limits in each region and the extensive use of computer-assisted modeling techniques, we monitor the concentration of risks exposed to catastrophic events.

Through the purchase of reinsurance, we also limit our net loss on any individual risk to a maximum of $12 million, although retentions can vary.

Premiums written and earned along with losses and settlement expenses incurred for the years ended December 31 are summarized as follows:

More than 93 percent of our reinsurance balances recoverable are due from companies with financial strength ratings of A or better by AM Best and S&P rating services. The following table displays net reinsurance balances recoverable, after consideration of collateral, from our top reinsurers as of December 31, 2024. These reinsurers all have financial strength ratings of A or better by AM Best and S&P’s ratings services. Also shown are the amounts of written premium ceded to these reinsurers during the calendar year 2024.

The allowances for uncollectible amounts on paid and unpaid recoverables were $17 million and $10 million, respectively, at December 31, 2024 and $16 million and $11 million, respectively, at December 31, 2023. Changes in the allowances during 2024 were due to changes in the amount of reinsurance balances outstanding, the composition of reinsurers from whom the balances were recoverable and their associated S&P default ratings. Less than $1 million of write-offs were applied to the allowances in 2024 and less than $1 million was recovered.

The following table is a reconciliation of our unpaid losses and settlement expenses (LAE) for the years 2024, 2023 and 2022:

Loss development occurs when our current estimate of ultimate losses, established through our reserve analysis processes, differs from the initial reserve estimate. The recognition of the changes in initial reserve estimates occurred over time as claims were reported, initial case reserves were established, initial reserves were reviewed in light of additional information and ultimate payments were made on the collective set of claims incurred as of that evaluation date. The new information on the ultimate settlement value of claims is continually updated until all claims in a defined set are settled. As a specialty insurer with a diversified product portfolio, our experience will ordinarily exhibit fluctuations from period to period. While we attempt to identify and react to changes in the loss environment, we also must consider the volume of claim experience directly available to the Company and interpret any particular period’s indications with a realistic technical understanding of the reliability of those observations.

The following is information about incurred and paid loss development as of December 31, 2024, net of reinsurance, as well as cumulative claim frequency, the total of IBNR liabilities included within the net incurred loss amounts and average historical claims duration as of December 31, 2024. The loss information has been disaggregated so that only losses that are expected to develop in a similar manner are grouped together. This has resulted in the presentation of loss information for our property and surety segments at the segment level, while information for our casualty segment has been separated in four groupings: primary occurrence, excess occurrence, claims made and transportation. Primary occurrence includes select lines within the professional services product along with general liability, small commercial and other casualty products. Excess occurrence encompasses commercial excess and personal umbrella, while claims made includes select lines within the professional services product, executive products and other casualty. Reported claim counts represent claim events on a specified policy rather than individual claimants and includes claims that did not or are not expected to result in an incurred loss. The information about incurred and paid claims development for the years ended December 31, 2015 to 2023 is presented as unaudited required supplementary information.