Jackson Financial Inc

1. Business and Basis of Presentation

Jackson Financial Inc. ("JFI" or “Jackson Financial”) together with its subsidiaries (the “Company,” which also may be referred to as “we,” “our” or “us”), is a financial services company focused on helping Americans grow and protect their retirement savings and income to enable them to pursue financial freedom for life. Jackson Financial is domiciled in the state of Delaware in the United States (“U.S.”).

We were previously a majority-owned subsidiary of Prudential plc ("Prudential"), London, England and served as the holding company for its U.S. operations. The Company's demerger from Prudential was completed on September 13, 2021 ("Demerger"), and the Company is a stand-alone U.S. public company. Prudential retained an equity interest in us after the Demerger. As a result of sales subsequent to the Demerger, Prudential hasno remaining equity interest in the Company as of June 30, 2023.

Jackson Financial’s primary life insurance subsidiary, Jackson National Life Insurance Company and its insurance subsidiaries (collectively, “Jackson”), is licensed to sell group and individual annuity products (including immediate, registered index-linked, deferred fixed, fixed index and variable annuities), and individual life insurance products, including variable universal life, in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Jackson also participates in the institutional products market through the issuance of guaranteed investment contracts (“GICs”), funding agreements and medium-term note funding agreements. In addition to Jackson, Jackson Financial’s other operating subsidiaries are as follows:

•PPM America, Inc. (“PPM”), is the Company’s investment management operation that manages the life insurance companies’ general account investment funds. PPM also provides investment services to other former affiliated and unaffiliated institutional clients.

•Brooke Life Insurance Company (“Brooke Life”), Jackson’s direct parent, is a life insurance company licensed to sell life insurance and annuity products in the state of Michigan.

Other wholly-owned subsidiaries of Jackson are as follows:

•Life insurers: Jackson National Life Insurance Company of New York (“Jackson NY” or “JNY”); Squire Reassurance Company LLC (“Squire Re”); Squire Reassurance Company II, Inc. (“Squire Re II”); and VFL International Life Company SPC, LTD;

•Registered broker-dealer: Jackson National Life Distributors LLC (“JNLD”);

•Registered investment adviser: Jackson National Asset Management LLC (“JNAM”), which manages the life insurance companies' separate account funds underlying our variable annuities products, which funds are sub-advised. JNAM manages and oversees those sub-advisers; and

•Other insignificant wholly-owned subsidiaries.

The Company's Consolidated Financial Statements also include other insignificant partnerships, limited liability companies (“LLCs”) and other variable interest entities (“VIEs”) in which the Company is deemed the primary beneficiary.

Basis of Presentation

The accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements have been prepared in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (“GAAP”). Intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated upon consolidation. Certain amounts in the 2022 Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements have been reclassified to conform to the 2023 presentation.

The Company adopted Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) 2018-12, “Targeted Improvements to the Accounting for Long-Duration Contracts” (“LDTI”), effective January 1, 2023, with a transition date of January 1, 2021. See Note 2 - Summary of Significant Accounting Policies of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for further description of our adoption of LDTI. New accounting policies adopted for LDTI are included in Notes 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 to the Consolidated Financial Statements in this Form 10-K.

Part II |Item 8. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements | 1. Business and Basis of Presentation

Use of Estimates

The preparation of these Consolidated Financial Statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP requires the use of estimates and assumptions about future events that affect the amounts reported in the Consolidated Financial Statements and the accompanying notes. Significant estimates or assumptions, as further discussed in these notes, include:

•Valuation of investments and derivative instruments, including fair values of securities deemed to be in an illiquid market and the determination of when an impairment is necessary;

•Assessments as to whether certain entities are VIEs, the existence of reconsideration events and the determination of which party, if any, should consolidate the entity;

•Assumptions used in calculating policy reserves and liabilities including policyholder behavior, mortality rates, expenses, investment returns and policy crediting rates;

•Assumptions as to future earnings levels being sufficient to realize deferred tax benefits;

•Estimates related to expectations of credit losses on certain financial assets and off-balance sheet exposures;

•Assumptions and estimates associated with the Company’s tax positions, including an estimate of the dividends received deduction, which impact the amount of recognized tax benefits recorded by the Company;

•Assumptions used in calculating market risk benefits, including policyholder behavior, mortality rates, and capital market assumptions; and

•Assumptions impacting the expected term used in amortizing deferred acquisition costs, including policyholder behavior and mortality rates.

These estimates and assumptions are based on management’s best estimates and judgments. Management evaluates its estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis using historical experience and other appropriate factors. As facts and circumstances dictate, these estimates and assumptions may be adjusted. Since future events and their effects cannot be determined with precision, actual results could differ significantly from these estimates. Changes in estimates, including those resulting from continuing changes in the economic environment, will be reflected in the Consolidated Financial Statements in the periods the estimates are changed.

2. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

The following table identifies our significant accounting policies presented in other Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements:

Other Significant Accounting Policies

Cash and Cash Equivalents

Cash and cash equivalents primarily include money market instruments and bank deposits. Cash equivalents also include

all highly liquid securities and other investments purchased with an original or remaining maturity of three months or less

at the date of purchase.

Revenue and Expense Recognition

Premiums for traditional life insurance and limited-payment insurance contracts are reported as revenues when due. Benefits, claims and expenses are associated with earned revenues in order to recognize profit over the lives of the contracts. This association is accomplished through provisions for future policy benefits and the deferral and amortization of certain acquisition costs.

Deposits on interest-sensitive life products and investment contracts, principally deferred annuities and guaranteed investment contracts, are treated as policyholder deposits and excluded from revenue. Revenues consist primarily of investment income and charges assessed against the account value for mortality charges, surrenders, variable annuity benefit guarantees and administrative expenses. Fee income also includes revenues related to asset management fees and certain service fees. Surrender benefits are treated as repayments of the policyholder account. Annuity benefit payments are treated as reductions to the policyholder account. Death benefits in excess of the policyholder account are recognized as an expense when incurred. Expenses consist primarily of the interest credited to policyholder deposits. Acquisition expenses directly related to the successful acquisition of these contracts are deferred. These deferred acquisition costs are amortized on a constant-level basis over the expected term of the contracts. Expenses not related to policy acquisition are recognized when incurred.

Management Fees Based on a Formula

PPM receives an investment management fee for services as an asset manager for various entities. Revenue for these services is measured based on the terms specified in a customer's contract and is recognized when PPM has satisfied a performance obligation. These investment management fees are recognized ratably over the period that assets are managed, and when the probability of significant revenue reversal is remote. PPM also receives performance-based incentive fees from certain entities for which it invests based on predetermined formulas. Performance related management fees are earned over a specified period and can result in additional fees. These fees are recognized at the end of the agreement, once the fees are fixed, determinable, not subject to further performance metrics, and probability of significant revenue reversal is remote.

Changes in Accounting Principles – Adopted in Current Year

In March 2020, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued ASU 2020-04, “Reference Rate Reform (Topic 848): Facilitation of the Effects of Reference Rate Reform on Financial Reporting.” The guidance provides optional expedients for applying U.S. GAAP to contracts and other transactions affected by reference rate reform and is effective for contract modifications made between March 12, 2020 and December 31, 2022. In December 2022, the FASB issued ASU 2022-06, “Reference Rate Reform (Topic 848): Deferral of the Sunset Date of Topic 848” that defers the sunset date of Topic 848 from December 31, 2022 to December 31, 2024, after which entities will no longer be permitted to apply the relief in Topic 848. If certain criteria are met, an entity will not be required to remeasure or reassess contracts impacted by reference rate reform. The practical expedient allowed by this standard was elected and is being applied prospectively by the Company as reference rate reform unfolds. The contracts modified to date met the criteria for the practical expedient and therefore had no material impact on the Company’s Consolidated Financial Statements. The Company will continue to evaluate the impacts of reference rate reform on contract modifications and other transactions through December 31, 2024.

In August 2018, the FASB issued ASU 2018-12, “Targeted Improvements to the Accounting for Long Duration Contracts,” ("LDTI"), which included changes to the existing recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure requirements for long-duration contracts issued by an insurance entity. The Company adopted LDTI effective January 1, 2023, with a transition date of January 1, 2021, using the modified retrospective transition method relating to liabilities for traditional and limited payment contracts and deferred policy acquisition costs associated therewith; and on a retrospective basis, in relation to market risk benefits ("MRBs").

Under the modified retrospective approach, the Company applied the guidance to contracts in force on the transition date on the basis of their existing carrying value, using updated future cash flow assumptions, and eliminated certain related amounts in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) (“AOCI”). Under the full retrospective transition approach, the Company applied the guidance as of the transition date, using actual historical assumption information as of contract inception, as if the accounting principle had always been applied.

Amounts reported as of December 31, 2023 and 2022 and for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021 within these Consolidated Financial Statements are accounted for and presented in accordance with U.S. GAAP reflecting the adoption of LDTI.

LDTI contains four significant changes:

1. Market risk benefits: market risk benefits, a new term for certain contract features that provide for potential benefits in addition to the account balance that expose the Company to other-than-nominal market risk (for example, guaranteed benefits on annuity contracts, including guaranteed minimum withdrawal benefits and guaranteed minimum death benefits on variable annuities), are measured at fair value. Changes in fair value are recorded and presented separately within the income statement, with the exception of changes in fair value due to non-performance risk, which are recognized in other comprehensive income (loss) (“OCI”);

2. Deferred acquisition costs: deferred acquisition costs (“DAC”) are amortized on a constant-level basis, independent of profitability of the underlying business;

3. Liability for future policy benefits: annual review and, if necessary, update of cash flow assumptions used to measure the liability for future policy benefits for nonparticipating traditional and limited-payment insurance contracts is required. These liabilities are discounted using an upper-medium grade fixed income instrument yield which is updated quarterly, with related changes in the liability recognized in OCI; and

4. Enhanced disclosures: enhanced disclosures, including disaggregated roll-forwards of certain balance sheet accounts that provide information about actual and expected cash flows, as well as information about significant inputs, judgments, assumptions and methods used in measurement, are required. The enhanced disclosures are intended to improve the ability of users of the financial statements to evaluate the timing, amount, and uncertainty of cash flows arising from long-duration contracts.

The adoption of LDTI resulted in a decrease in total equity of $3.0 billion as of the transition date of January 1, 2021, comprised of a reduction in AOCI of $0.4 billion and a reduction in retained earnings of $2.6 billion. The primary drivers for this impact to total equity included:

1. the classification of certain benefits as market risk benefits, which were remeasured at fair value as of the transition date. The resulting change in the value of these benefits at the transition date, net of the related deferred tax effect, is recognized in retained earnings, with the exception of the cumulative effect of changes in non-performance risk, net of the related deferred tax effect, which is recognized in AOCI;

2. changes to the discount rate used to measure liabilities for future policyholder benefits which, under LDTI, are remeasured each reporting period using current upper-medium grade fixed-income instrument yields, which are generally considered to be those on single-A rated public corporate debt. The cumulative effect of the remeasurement of these liabilities using the transition date discount rate, net of the related deferred tax effect, is recognized in AOCI; and

3. the removal of certain shadow adjustments previously recorded in AOCI related to the impact of unrealized gains (losses) on investments that were included in the estimated gross profit amortization calculation for deferred acquisition costs, which, since the adoption of LDTI, are no longer recognized.

The following table presents the effect of transition adjustments on shareholders' equity due to the adoption of LDTI (in millions):

The following table presents amounts previously reported as of December 31, 2020, to reflect the effect of the change due to the adoption of LDTI, and the adjusted amounts as of January 1, 2021 (in millions):

Liability for future policy benefits

For the liability for future policy benefits, the net transition adjustment is related to the difference in the discount rate used pre-transition and the discount rate at January 1, 2021. The discount rate used to measure the liability at transition was generally lower than the rates used to measure the liability prior to the adoption of LDTI. Additionally, at transition, where net premiums exceeded gross premiums at the cohort level, the Company set net premiums equal to gross premiums and recognized the resulting increase in the liability for future policy benefits as an adjustment to opening retained earnings.

The following table presents the impact of the adoption of LDTI, as of the transition date, on reserves for future policy benefits and claims payable (in millions):

The following table presents the transition date reclassifications and adjustments to reserves for future policy benefits by category resulting from the adoption of LDTI (in millions):

(1) Includes variable annuity embedded derivatives that were reclassed to market risk benefits.

The following table presents the impact of the adoption of LDTI, as of the transition date, on Closed Block Life additional liabilities for universal life-type contracts (in millions):

Market risk benefits

For MRBs, the net transition adjustment relates to the measurement of certain guaranteed benefit features at fair value that were previously measured using an insurance accrual model. The measurement of these features at fair value includes use of generally lower discount rates and lower assumed future fund performance relative to their previous measurement, as well as inclusion of risk margins, all of which lead to a generally higher fair value balance relative to the carrying value prior to transition to LDTI.

The transition adjustment to AOCI for MRBs relates to the effect of changes in the non-performance risk between the contract issuance date and the transition date. The remaining difference between the carrying value of these contract features under the insurance accrual model prior to transition to LDTI and the fair value measured at transition was recorded as an adjustment to retained earnings as of the transition date.

The following table presents the impact of the adoption of LDTI, as of the transition date, on MRBs, net (in millions):

Deferred acquisition costs

For DAC, at transition to LDTI, the Company removed shadow adjustments previously recorded in AOCI for the impact of unrealized gains and losses that were included in the estimated gross profit amortization calculation prior to the adoption of LDTI.

The following table presents the impact of the adoption of LDTI, as of the transition date, on DAC (in millions):

Reinsurance recoverable

The following table presents the impact of the adoption of LDTI, as of the transition date, on reinsurance recoverable (in millions):

The following table presents the impact of the adoption of LDTI, as of the transition date, on reinsurance recoverable on market risk benefits at fair value (in millions):

The adoption of LDTI resulted in increases in net income attributable to Jackson Financial of $489 million and $234 million for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively, and also resulted in an increase in total equity of $223 million for the year ended December 31, 2022.

The following table presents amounts previously reported in the Consolidated Balance Sheets as of December 31, 2022, to reflect the effect of the change due to the adoption of LDTI, and the adjusted amounts as of December 31, 2022 (in millions):

The following tables present amounts previously reported in the Consolidated Income Statements for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, to reflect the effect of the change due to the adoption of LDTI, and the adjusted amounts (in millions, except per share amounts):

The following tables present amounts previously reported in Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, to reflect the effect of the change due to the adoption of LDTI, and the adjusted amounts (in millions):

The adoption of LDTI did not affect the previously reported totals for net cash flows provided by (used in) operating, investing, or financing activities, but did affect the following components of net cash flows provided by (used in) operating activities:

In March 2022, the FASB issued ASU 2022-02, “Financial Instruments – Credit Losses (Topic 326): Troubled Debt Restructurings and Vintage Disclosures.” The new guidance eliminates the accounting guidance for troubled debt restructurings by creditors, and instead requires an entity to evaluate whether a modification represents a new loan or a continuation of an existing loan. The amendments also enhance disclosure requirements for certain loan refinancings and restructurings by creditors when a borrower is experiencing financial difficulty. New guidance for vintage disclosures requires that current-period gross write-offs be disclosed by year of origination for financing receivables and net investments in leases that fall within scope of the current expected credit loss model. The amendments in this update are effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2022, including interim periods within those fiscal years. Updates should be applied prospectively. However, an entity has the option to apply the modified retrospective method related to the recognition and measurements of troubled debt restructurings. Effective January 1, 2023, the Company adopted ASU 2022-02, which did not have a material impact to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

Changes in Accounting Principles – Issued but Not Yet Adopted

In November 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-07, Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures, which requires a public entity to disclose its significant segment expenses regularly provided to the chief operating decision maker (CODM) and the amount and composition of other segment items. It also requires a public entity to disclose the title and position of the CODM. The ASU allows a public entity to disclose multiple measurements of segment profit or loss if a CODM uses

Part II |Item 8. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements |2. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

multiple measures to assess segment’s performance and allocate resources. This ASU also expands the current interim disclosure requirements to require that nearly all of the annual segment disclosures be made on an interim basis. The amendments in this ASU will be effective for the Company for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2023, with early adoption permitted, and are to be applied retrospectively. The Company is in the process of evaluating the impact of the new guidance and determining the timing of adoption.

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures, which requires disaggregated information about a reporting entity’s effective tax rate reconciliation as well as information on income taxes paid. The new requirements in this ASU will be effective for the Company for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2024, with early adoption permitted, and are to be applied on a prospective basis with the option to apply retrospectively. The Company is in the process of evaluating the impact of the new guidance and determining the transition method and the timing of adoption.

3. Segment Information

The Company hasthree reportable segments: Retail Annuities, Institutional Products, and Closed Life and Annuity Block. The Company reports certain activities and items that are not included in these reportable segments, including the results of PPM Holdings, Inc., the holding company of PPM, which manages the majority of the Company’s general account investment portfolio, in Corporate and Other. The reportable segments reflect how the Company’s chief operating decision maker views and manages the business. The following is a brief description of the Company’s reportable segments, plus its Corporate and Other segment.

The Company’s Retail Annuities segment offers a variety of retirement income and savings products through its diverse suite of products, consisting primarily of variable annuities, fixed index annuities, fixed annuities, payout annuities, and registered index-linked annuities ("RILA"). These products are distributed through various wirehouses, insurance brokers and independent broker-dealers, as well as through banks and financial institutions, primarily to high-net worth investors and the mass and affluent markets.

The Company’s variable annuities represent an attractive option for retirees and soon-to-be retirees, providing access to equity market appreciation and add-on benefits, including guaranteed lifetime income. A fixed index annuity is designed for investors who desire principal protection with the opportunity to participate in capped upside investment returns linked to a reference market index. The Company also provides access to guaranteed lifetime income as an add-on benefit. A fixed annuity is a guaranteed product designed to build wealth without market exposure, through a crediting rate that is likely to be superior to interest rates offered from banks or money market funds. A RILA offers customers exposure to market returns through market index-linked investment options, subject to a cap, and offers a variety of features designed to modify or limit losses.

The financial results of the variable annuity business within the Company’s Retail Annuities segment are largely dependent on the performance of the contract holder account value, which impacts both the level of fees collected and the benefits paid to the contract holder. The financial results of the Company’s fixed annuities, including the fixed option on variable annuities, RILA and fixed index annuities, are largely dependent on the Company’s ability to earn a spread between earned investment rates on general account assets and the interest credited to contract holders.

The Company’s Institutional Products segment consists of traditional Guaranteed Investment Contracts ("GICs"), funding agreements (including agreements issued in conjunction with the Company’s participation in the U.S. Federal Home Loan Bank ("FHLB") program) and medium-term note funding agreements. The Company’s GIC products are marketed to defined contribution pension and profit-sharing retirement plans. Funding agreements are marketed to institutional investors, including corporate cash accounts and securities lending funds, as well as money market funds, and are issued to the FHLB in connection with its program.

The financial results of the Company’s institutional products business are primarily dependent on the Company’s ability to earn a spread between earned investment rates on general account assets and the interest credited on GICs and funding agreements.

The Company's Closed Life and Annuity Blocks segment is primarily composed of blocks of business that have been acquired since 2004. This segment includes various protection products, primarily whole life, universal life, variable universal life, and term life insurance products, as well as fixed, fixed index, and payout annuities. The Closed Life and Annuity Blocks segment also includes a block of group payout annuities that we assumed from John Hancock Life Insurance Company (USA) and John Hancock Life Insurance Company of New York through reinsurance transactions in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The Company historically offered traditional and interest-sensitive life insurance products but discontinued new sales of life insurance products in 2012, as we believe opportunistically acquiring mature blocks of life insurance policies was a more efficient means of diversifying our in-force business than selling new life insurance products.

The profitability of the Company’s Closed Life and Annuity Blocks segment is largely driven by its historical ability to appropriately price its products and purchase appropriately priced blocks of business, as realized through underwriting, expense and net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments, and the ability to earn an assumed rate of return on the assets supporting that business.

The Company’s Corporate and Other segment primarily consists of the operations of its investment management subsidiary, PPM, VIE’s, and unallocated corporate income and expenses. The Corporate and Other segment also includes certain eliminations and consolidation adjustments.

Segment Performance Measurement

Segment operating revenues and pretax adjusted operating earnings are non-GAAP financial measures that management believes are critical to the evaluation of the financial performance of the Company’s segments. The Company uses the same accounting policies and procedures to measure segment pretax adjusted operating earnings as used in its reporting of consolidated net income. Its primary measure is pretax adjusted operating earnings, which is defined as net income recorded in accordance with U.S. GAAP, excluding certain items that may be highly variable from period to period due to accounting treatment under U.S. GAAP, or that are non-recurring in nature, as well as certain other revenues and expenses that are not considered to drive underlying performance. Operating revenues and pretax adjusted operating earnings should not be used as a substitute for revenues and net income as calculated in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

Pretax adjusted operating earnings equals net income adjusted to eliminate the impact of the items described in the following numbered paragraphs. These items are excluded from pretax adjusted operating earnings as they may vary significantly from period to period due to near-term market conditions and therefore are not directly comparable or reflective of the underlying performance of our business. We believe these exclusions provide investors a better picture of the drivers of our underlying performance.

1. Net Hedging Results: Comprised of: (i) fees attributed to guaranteed benefits; (ii) changes in the fair value of freestanding derivatives used to manage the risk associated with market risk benefits and other guaranteed benefit features, excluding earned income (periodic settlements and changes in settlement accruals); (iii) the movements in reserves, market risk benefits, guaranteed benefit features accounted for as embedded derivative instruments, and related claims and benefit payments; (iv) amortization of the balance of unamortized deferred acquisition costs at the date of transition to current LDTI accounting guidance on January 1, 2021 associated with items excluded from pretax adjusted operating earnings prior to transition; and (v) the impact on the valuation of Guaranteed Benefits and Net Hedging Results arising from changes in underlying actuarial assumptions. We believe excluding these items removes the impact to both revenue and related expenses associated with Guaranteed Benefits and Net Hedging Results.

2. Net Realized Investment Gains and Losses: Comprised of: (i) realized investment gains and losses associated with the periodic sales or disposals of securities, excluding those held within our trading portfolio; and (ii) impairments of securities, after adjustment for the non-credit component of the impairment charges.

3. Change in Value of Funds Withheld Embedded Derivative and Net Investment Income on Funds Withheld Assets: Comprised of: (i) the change in fair value of funds withheld embedded derivatives; and (ii) net investment income on funds withheld assets related to funds withheld reinsurance transactions.

4. Other items: Comprised of: (i) the impact of investments that are consolidated in our financial statements due to U.S. GAAP accounting requirements, such as our investments in collateralized loan obligations ("CLOs"), but for which the consolidation effects are not consistent with our economic interest or exposure to those entities, and (ii) one-time or other non-recurring items.

5. Income taxes.

Set forth in the tables below is certain information with respect to the Company’s segments, as described above (in millions):

Intersegment eliminations in the above tables are included in the Corporate and Other segment. These include the elimination of investment income, between Retail Annuities and the Corporate and Other segments, as well as the elimination from fee income and investment income of investment fees paid by Jackson Financial and its subsidiaries to its affiliate PPM, which were $76 million, $74 million, and $69 million for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

The following table summarizes the reconciling items from the non-GAAP measure of total operating revenues to the U.S. GAAP measure of total revenues attributable to the Company (in millions):

(1) Substantially all the Company's revenues originated in the U.S. There were no individual customers that exceeded 10% of total revenues.

The following table summarizes the reconciling items from the non-GAAP measure of total operating benefits and expenses to the U.S. GAAP measure of total benefits and expenses attributable to the Company (in millions):

The following table summarizes the reconciling items, from the non-GAAP measure of pretax adjusted operating earnings to the U.S. GAAP measure of net income attributable to the Company (in millions):

The following table summarizes total assets by segment (in millions):

4. Investments

Investments consist primarily of fixed-income securities and loans, principally publicly-traded corporate and government bonds, asset-backed securities and mortgage loans. Asset-backed securities include mortgage-backed and other structured securities. The Company generates the majority of its general account deposits from interest-sensitive individual annuity contracts, life insurance products and institutional products on which it has committed to pay a declared rate of interest. The Company's strategy of investing in fixed-income securities and loans seeks the matching of the asset yield with the amounts credited to the interest-sensitive liabilities and to earn a stable return on its investments.

Debt Securities

Debt securities consist primarily of bonds, notes, and asset-backed securities. Acquisition discounts and premiums on debt securities are amortized into investment income through call or maturity dates using the effective interest method. Discounts and premiums on asset-backed securities are amortized over the estimated redemption period. Certain asset-backed securities for which the Company might not recover substantially all of its recorded investment are accounted for on a prospective basis according to changes in the estimated future cash flows.

Debt securities are generally classified as available-for-sale and are carried at fair value. For debt securities in an unrealized loss position, for which the Company deems an impairment necessary, the amortized cost may be written down to fair value through net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments, or an allowance for credit loss (“ACL”) may be recorded along with a charge to net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments.

Certain debt securities included from consolidation of certain VIEs are carried at fair value under the fair value option with changes in fair value included in net investment income. Other debt securities included from consolidation of certain VIEs are classified as trading securities and are carried at fair value with the changes in fair value included in net investment income.

The following table sets forth the composition of the fair value of debt securities at December 31, 2023 and 2022, classified by rating categories as assigned by nationally recognized statistical rating organization (a “rating agency”), the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (“NAIC”), or if not rated by such organizations, the Company’s investment advisors. The Company uses the second lowest rating by a rating agency when rating agencies ratings are not equivalent and, for purposes of the table, if not otherwise rated by a rating agency, the NAIC rating of a security is converted to an equivalent rating agency rating. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the carrying value of investments rated by the Company’s consolidated investment advisor totaled $486 million and $32 million, respectively.

At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the total carrying value of debt securities in an unrealized loss position consisted of:

Unrealized losses on debt securities that were below investment grade or not rated were approximately 21% and 21% of the aggregate gross unrealized losses on available-for-sale debt securities at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

Corporate securities in an unrealized loss position were diversified across industries as follows (in millions, except percentages):

At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the amortized cost, allowance for credit loss ("ACL"), gross unrealized gains and losses, and fair value of debt securities, including trading securities and securities carried at fair value under the fair value option, were as follows (in millions):

The amortized cost, ACL, gross unrealized gains and losses, and fair value of debt securities at December 31, 2023, by contractual maturity, are shown below (in millions). Actual maturities may differ from contractual maturities where securities can be called or prepaid with or without early redemption penalties.

(1) Amortized cost, apart from the carrying value for securities carried at fair value under the fair value option and trading securities.

As required by law in various states in which business is conducted, securities with a carrying value of $91 million and $90 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, were on deposit with regulatory authorities.

Residential mortgage-backed securities (“RMBS”) include certain RMBS that are collateralized by residential mortgage loans and are neither expressly nor implicitly guaranteed by U.S. government agencies (“non-agency RMBS”). The Company’s non-agency RMBS include investments in securities backed by prime, Alt-A, and subprime loans as follows (in millions):

The Company defines its exposure to non-agency RMBS as follows:

•Prime loan-backed securities are collateralized by mortgage loans made to the highest rated borrowers.

•Alt-A loan-backed securities are collateralized by mortgage loans made to borrowers who lack credit documentation or necessary requirements to obtain prime borrower rates.

•Subprime loan-backed securities are collateralized by mortgage loans made to borrowers that have a FICO score of 660 or lower.

The following table summarizes the number of securities, fair value and the gross unrealized losses of debt securities, aggregated by investment category and length of time that individual debt securities have been in a continuous loss position (dollars in millions):

(1) Certain securities contain multiple lots and fit the criteria of both aging groups.

Debt securities in an unrealized loss position as of December 31, 2023 did not require an impairment recognized in earnings as (i) the Company did not intend to sell these debt securities, (ii) it is not more likely than not that the Company will be required to sell these securities before recovery of their amortized cost basis, and (iii) the difference in the fair value compared to the amortized cost was due to factors other than credit loss. Based upon this evaluation, the Company believes it has the ability to generate adequate amounts of cash from normal operations to meet cash requirements with a reasonable margin of safety without requiring the sale of impaired securities.

As of December 31, 2023, unrealized losses associated with debt securities are primarily due to widening credit spreads or rising risk-free rates since purchase. As described below, the Company performed analyses of the financial performance of the underlying issues in an unrealized loss position and determined that recovery of the entire amortized cost of each impaired security is expected.

Evaluation of Available-for-Sale Debt Securities for Credit Loss

For debt securities in an unrealized loss position, management first assesses whether the Company has the intent to sell, or whether it is more likely than not it will be required to sell the security before the amortized cost basis is fully recovered. If either criterion is met, the amortized cost is written down to fair value through net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments as an impairment. If neither criterion is met, the securities are further evaluated to determine if the cause of the decline in fair value resulted from credit losses or other factors, such as estimates about issuer operations and future earnings potential.

The credit loss evaluation for a security may consider the following: the extent to which the fair value is below amortized cost; changes in ratings; whether a significant covenant has been breached; assessments of the issuer’s ability to make scheduled debt payments based upon judgments related to its current and projected financial position, including whether it has filed or indicated a possibility of filing for bankruptcy, has missed or announced it intends to miss a scheduled debt service payment, or has experienced a specific material adverse change that may impair its creditworthiness; the existence of, and realizable value of, any collateral backing the obligations; and the macro-economic and micro-economic outlooks for the issuer and its industry.

In addition to the above, the credit loss review of asset-backed securities includes an assessment of future estimated cash flows under expected and stress case scenarios, to identify potential shortfalls in contractual payments. These estimated cash flows are developed using available performance indicators from the underlying assets, such as current and projected default or delinquency rates, levels of credit enhancement, current subordination levels, vintage, expected loss severity and other relevant characteristics.

For mortgage-backed securities, credit losses are assessed using a cash flow model that estimates the cash flows on the underlying mortgages, using the security-specific collateral characteristics and transaction structure. The model estimates cash flows from the underlying mortgage loans and distributes those cash flows to various tranches of securities based on the transaction structure and any existing subordination and credit enhancements. The cash flow model incorporates actual cash flows on the mortgage-backed securities through the current period and then projects the remaining cash flows using a number of assumptions, including prepayment timing, default rates and loss severity. Specifically, for prime and Alt-A RMBS, the assumed default percentage is dependent on the severity of delinquency status, with foreclosures and real estate owned receiving higher rates, but also includes the currently performing loans.

These estimates reflect a combination of data derived by third parties and internally developed assumptions. Where possible, this data is benchmarked against other third-party sources. In addition, these estimates are extrapolated along a default timing curve to estimate the total lifetime pool default rate. When a credit loss is determined to exist and the present value of cash flows expected to be collected is less than the amortized cost of the security, an allowance for credit loss is recorded along with a charge to net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments, limited by the amount that the fair value is less than amortized cost. Any remaining unrealized loss after recording the allowance for credit loss is the non-credit amount and is recorded to other comprehensive income.

There are inherent uncertainties in assessing the fair values assigned to the Company’s investments. The Company’s reviews of net present value and fair value involve several criteria including economic conditions, credit loss experience, other issuer-specific developments and estimated future cash flows. These assessments are based on the best available information at the time. Factors such as market liquidity, the widening of bid/ask spreads and a change in the cash flow assumptions can contribute to future price volatility. If actual experience differs negatively from the assumptions and other considerations used in the Consolidated Financial Statements, unrealized losses currently reported in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) may be recognized in the Consolidated Income Statements in future periods.

The Company currently has no intent to sell securities with unrealized losses considered to be temporary until they mature or recover in value and believes that it has the ability to do so. However, if the specific facts and circumstances surrounding an individual security, or the outlook for its industry sector change, the Company may sell the security prior to its maturity or recovery and realize a loss.

The allowance for credit loss for specific debt securities may be increased or reversed in subsequent periods due to changes in the assessment of the present value of cash flows that are expected to be collected. Any changes to the allowance for credit loss is recorded as a provision for (or reversal of) credit loss expense in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments.

When all, or a portion, of a security is deemed uncollectible, the uncollectible portion is written-off with an adjustment to amortized cost and a corresponding reduction to the allowance for credit losses.

Accrued interest receivables are presented separate from the amortized cost basis of debt securities. Accrued interest receivables that are determined to be uncollectible are written off with a corresponding reduction to net investment income. Accrued interest of $1 million andnil was written off during the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

The roll-forward of the allowance for credit loss for available-for-sale securities by sector is as follows (in millions):

(1) Represents purchased credit-deteriorated ("PCD") fixed maturity available-for-sale securities.

(2) Accrued interest receivable on debt securities totaled $411 million and $407 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, and was excluded from the determination of credit losses for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022.

Net Investment Income

The sources of net investment income were as follows (in millions):

(1)Includes changes in fair value gains (losses) on trading securities and includes $34 million, $(149) million and $26 million for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively, related to the change in fair value for securities carried under the fair value option.

Investment income is not accrued on securities in default and otherwise where the collection is uncertain. In these cases, receipts of interest on such securities are used to reduce the cost basis of the securities.

Unrealized gains (losses) included in investment income that were recognized on equity securities held were $(20) million, $(52) million and $26 million, for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

Net Gains (Losses) on Derivatives and Investments

Realized gains and losses on sales of investments are recognized in income at the date of sale and are determined using the specific cost identification method.

The following table summarizes net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments (in millions):

Net gains (losses) on funds withheld reinsurance treaties represents income (loss) from the sale of investments held in segregated funds withheld accounts in support of reinsurance agreements for which Jackson retains legal ownership of the underlying investments. These gains (losses) are increased or decreased by changes in the embedded derivative liability related to the Athene funds withheld coinsurance agreement and also include (i) changes in the related funds withheld payable, as all economic performance of the investments held in the segregated accounts inure to the benefit of the reinsurers under the respective reinsurance agreements with each reinsurer, and (ii) amortization of the difference between book value and fair value of the investments as of the effective date of the reinsurance agreements with each reinsurer.

The aggregate fair value of securities sold at a loss for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021 was $5,529 million, $5,376 million and $2,604 million, which was approximately 97%,93% and 95% of book value, respectively.

Proceeds from sales of available-for-sale debt securities were $6.8 billion, $8.0 billion and $9.6 billion during the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

Consolidated Variable Interest Entities ("VIEs")

The Company’s involvement with VIEs is primarily to invest in assets that gain exposure to a broadly diversified portfolio of asset classes. A VIE is an entity that does not have sufficient equity to finance the activities of the entity without additional subordinated financial support or where equity investors lack certain characteristics of a controlling financial interest. The Company performs ongoing qualitative assessments of variable interests in VIEs to determine whether it has a controlling financial interest and would therefore be considered the primary beneficiary of the VIE. If the Company determines it is the primary beneficiary of a VIE, it consolidates the assets and liabilities of the VIE in its Consolidated Financial Statements.

The Company concluded that the following entities are VIEs and that the Company is the primary beneficiary as it has both the power to direct the most significant activities of the VIE as well as the obligation to absorb losses or the right to receive benefits that could potentially be significant to the VIE. In each case, the Company’s exposure to loss is limited to the capital invested plus, in the cases of the limited liability companies and the Private Equity Funds, unfunded capital commitments:

•The Company funds affiliated limited liability companies to facilitate the issuance of collateralized loan obligations ("CLOs"). In April 2022, the Company reinvested in CLO issuances resulting in an increase of consolidated assets and liabilities. In December 2022, a consolidated VIE issued $276 million par, net of the

Company’s holding of CLOs. The Company’s policy is to record the consolidation of VIEs on a one-month lag due to the timing of when information is available from the VIE. Therefore, the VIE's issuance of this CLO is not reflected in the Company’s Consolidated Balance Sheet as of December 31, 2022 but its inclusion would not materially impact the financial position of the Company as a result of the offsetting changes to assets and liabilities. In December 2023, a consolidated CLO expanded its issuance by $97 million, net of the Company’s holding, which was not reflected in the Company's Consolidated Balance Sheet as of December 31, 2023 due to the reporting lag. The inclusion of these additional issuances would not materially impact the financial position of the Company due to the offsetting changes to assets and liabilities.

•Private Equity Funds III – VIII are limited partnership structures that invest the ownership capital in portfolios of various other limited partnership structures. The Company sold all of its investment in Private Equity Funds III - VI and the majority of its investment in Private Equity Fund VII during the year ended December 31, 2023. The Company recorded a loss of $97 million on the sale, which it recognized in Net Investment Income for the year ended December 31, 2023. Those entities were deconsolidated as of December 31, 2023.

•PPM has created and managed institutional share class mutual funds, where Jackson seeds new funds, or new share classes within a fund, when deemed necessary to develop the requisite track record prior to allowing investment by external parties. Jackson may sell its interest in a fund once opened to investment by external parties.

Asset and liability information for the consolidated VIEs included on the Consolidated Balance Sheets are as follows (in millions):

Unconsolidated VIEs

The Company has concluded the following entities are VIEs but does not consolidate them. Based on analysis of the limited partnerships, limited liability companies and the mutual funds, the Company is not the primary beneficiary of the VIE because the Company lacks the power to direct the activities of the VIE that most significantly impact the VIE's performance or lacks the obligation to absorb losses or the right to receive benefits that could potentially be significant to the entities, or both.

•The Company invests in certain limited partnerships ("LPs") and limited liability companies ("LLCs"). The carrying amounts of the Company’s investments in these LPs and LLCs are recognized in other invested assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Unfunded capital commitments for these investments are detailed in Note 16 of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements. The Company’s exposure to loss is limited to the capital invested and unfunded capital commitments related to the LPs/LLCs, which was $2,576 million and $3,285 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. The capital invested in an LP or LLC equals the original capital contributed, increased for additional capital contributed after the initial investment, and reduced for any returns of capital from the LP or LLC. LPs and LLCs are carried at fair value.

•The Company invests in certain mutual funds. Mutual funds are recognized in equity securities on the Consolidated Balance Sheets and were $21 million and $28 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. The Company’s maximum exposure to loss on these mutual funds is limited to the amortized cost for these investments.

The Company makes investments in structured debt securities issued by VIEs for which it is not the manager. These structured debt securities include RMBS, Commercial Mortgage-Backed Securities ("CMBS"), and asset-backed securities ("ABS"). The Company does not consolidate the securitization trusts utilized in these transactions because it does not have the power to direct the activities that most significantly impact the economic performance of these securitization trusts. The Company does not consider its continuing involvement with these VIEs to be significant because it either invests in securities issued by the VIE and was not involved in the design of the VIE or no transfers have occurred between the Company and the VIE. The Company’s maximum exposure to loss on these structured debt securities is limited to the amortized cost of these investments. The Company does not have any further contractual obligations to the VIE. The Company recognizes the variable interest in these VIEs at fair value on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

Commercial and Residential Mortgage Loans

The following table shows commercial mortgage loans, residential mortgage loans, and the respective accrued interest thereon at December 31, 2023 and 2022 (in millions):

(1)Net of an allowance for credit losses of $160 million and $91 million at each date, respectively.

(2) Net of an allowance for credit losses of $5 million and $4 million at each date, respectively.

Commercial and residential mortgage loans are generally carried at the aggregate unpaid principal balance, adjusted for any applicable unamortized discount or premium, or ACL. Acquisition discounts and premiums on mortgage loans are amortized into investment income through maturity dates using the effective interest method. Interest income is accrued on the principal balance of the loan based on the loan’s contractual interest rate. Interest income and amortization of premiums and discounts are reported in net investment income along with prepayment fees and mortgage loan fees, which are recorded as incurred.

At December 31, 2023, commercial mortgage loans were collateralized by properties located in 36 states, the District of Columbia, and Europe, while residential mortgage loans were collateralized by properties located in 50 states, the District of Columbia, Mexico, and Europe.

Mortgage Loan Concessions

In response to the generally adverse economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Company granted concessions to certain of its commercial mortgage loan borrowers, including payment deferrals and other loan modifications. The Company has elected the option under the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021, and the Interagency Statement on Loan Modifications and Reporting for Financial Institutions

Working with Customers Affected by the Coronavirus (Revised) not to account for or report qualifying concessions as troubled debt restructurings and does not classify such loans as past due during the payment deferral period. Additionally, in accordance with the FASB’s published response to a COVID-19 Pandemic technical inquiry, the Company continues to accrue interest income on such loans that have deferred payment. For some commercial mortgage loan borrowers (principally in the hotel and retail sectors), the Company granted concessions that were primarily interest and/or principal payment deferrals generally ranging from 6 to 14 months and, to a much lesser extent, maturity date extensions. Repayment periods are generally withinone year but may extend until maturity date. Deferred commercial mortgage loan interest and principal payments were $8 million at December 31, 2023. The concessions granted had no impact on the Company’s results of operations or financial position as the Company has not granted concessions that would have been disclosed and accounted for as troubled debt restructurings.

Evaluation for Credit Losses on Mortgage Loans

The Company reviews mortgage loans that are not carried at fair value under the fair value option on a quarterly basis to estimate the ACL with changes in the ACL recorded in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments. Apart from an ACL recorded on individual mortgage loans where the borrower is experiencing financial difficulties, the Company records an ACL on the pool of mortgage loans based on lifetime expected credit losses. The Company utilizes a third-party forecasting model to estimate lifetime expected credit losses at a loan level for mortgage loans. The model forecasts net operating income and property values for the economic scenario selected. The debt service coverage ratios (“DSCR”) and loan to values (“LTV”) are calculated over the forecastable period by comparing the projected net operating income and property valuations to the loan payment and principal amounts of each loan. The model utilizes historical mortgage loan performance based on DSCRs and LTV to derive probability of default and expected losses based on the economic scenario that is similar to the Company’s expectations of economic factors such as unemployment, gross domestic product growth, and interest rates. The Company determined the forecastable period to be reasonable and supportable for a period of two years beyond the end of the reporting period. Over the following one-year period, the model reverts to the historical performance of the portfolio for the remainder of the contractual term of the loans. In cases where the Company does not have an appropriate length of historical performance, the relevant historical rate from an index or the lifetime expected credit loss calculated from the model may be used.

Unfunded commitments are included in the model and an ACL is determined accordingly. Credit loss estimates are pooled by property type and the Company does not include accrued interest in the determination of ACL.

For individual loans or for types of loans for which the third-party model is deemed not suitable, the Company utilizes relevant current market data, industry data, and publicly available historical loss rates to calculate an estimate of the lifetime expected credit loss.

Mortgage loans on real estate deemed uncollectible are charged against the ACL, and subsequent recoveries, if any, are credited to the ACL, limited to the aggregate of amounts previously charged-off and expected to be charged-off. Mortgage loans on real estate are presented net of the ACL on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

The following table provides the change in the allowance for credit losses in the Company’s mortgage loan portfolios (in millions):

(1) Accrued interest receivable totaled $46 million and $48 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, and was excluded from the determination of credit losses.

The Company’s mortgage loans that are current and in good standing are accruing interest. Interest is not accrued on loans greater than 90 days delinquent and in process of foreclosure, when deemed uncollectible. Delinquency status is determined from the date of the first missed contractual payment. Accrued interest amounting to $2 million andnil were written off as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, relating to loans that were greater than 90 days delinquent or in the process of foreclosure.

The following table provides information about our impaired residential mortgage loans (in millions):

The following tables provide information about the credit quality and vintage year of mortgage loans (in millions):

(1) At December 31, 2023 and 2022, includes mezzanine loans of $391 million and $410 million in the Apartment category, $21 million and $41 million in the Hotel category, $171 million and $236 million in the Office category, $32 million and $43 million in the Retail category, and $312 million and $140 million in the Warehouse category, respectively.

(2) At December 31, 2023 and 2022, includes $22 million and $41 million of loans purchased when the loans were greater than 90 days delinquent and $5 million and $12 million of loans in process of foreclosure are supported with insurance or other guarantees provided by various governmental programs, respectively.

The following table provides information about the mortgage loans modified to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty (in millions, except for percentage information):

The following table describes the financial effect of the modifications made to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty:

The Company closely monitors the performance of the loans that are modified to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty to understand the effectiveness of its modification efforts. The following table depicts the performance of loans that have been modified in the last 12 months (in millions):

As of December 31, 2022, there were no commercial mortgage loans involved in troubled debt restructuring. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, stressed mortgage loans for which the Company is dependent, or expects to be dependent, on the underlying property to satisfy repayment were $19 million and $3 million, respectively.

Equity Securities

Equity securities include common stocks, preferred stocks and mutual funds. All equity securities are carried at fair value with changes in value included in net investment income.

Policy loans are loans the Company issues to contract holders that use the cash surrender value of their life insurance policy or annuity contract as collateral. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, $3.5 billion and $3.4 billion, respectively, of these loans were carried at fair value, which the Company believes is equal to unpaid principal balances, plus accrued investment income. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the Company had $0.9 billion and $1.0 billion, respectively, of policy loans not held as collateral for reinsurance, which were carried at the unpaid principal balances.

Other Invested Assets

Other invested assets primarily include investments in Federal Home Loan Bank of Indianapolis ("FHLBI") capital stock, limited partnerships (“LPs”), and real estate. FHLBI capital stock is carried at cost and adjusted for any impairment. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, FHLB capital stock had carrying value of $108 million and $146 million, respectively. Real estate is carried at the lower of depreciated cost or fair value and real estate occupied by the Company is carried at depreciated cost. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, real estate totaling $226 million and $237 million, included foreclosed properties with a book value of $6 million andnil, respectively. Carrying values for LP investments are generally determined by using the proportion of the Company’s investment in each fund (Net Asset Value (“NAV”) equivalent) as a practical expedient for fair value, and generally are recorded on a three-month lag, with changes in value included in net investment income. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, investments in LPs had carrying values of $2,132 million and $3,212 million, respectively.

Securities Lending

The Company has entered into securities lending agreements with agent banks whereby blocks of securities are loaned to third parties, primarily major brokerage firms. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, the estimated fair value of loaned securities was $19 million and $35 million, respectively. The agreements require a minimum of 102% of the fair value of the loaned securities to be held as collateral, calculated daily. To further minimize the credit risks related to these programs, the financial condition of counterparties is monitored on a regular basis. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, cash collateral received in the amount of $19 million and $36 million, respectively, was invested by the agent banks and included in cash and cash equivalents of the Company. A securities lending payable for the overnight and continuous loans is included in liabilities in the amount of cash collateral received. Securities lending transactions are used to generate income. Income and expenses associated with these transactions are reported as net investment income.

Repurchase Agreements

The Company routinely enters into repurchase agreements whereby the Company agrees to sell and repurchase securities. These agreements are accounted for as financing transactions, with the assets and associated liabilities included in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The following table presents information regarding these transactions for the December 31, 2023 and 2022 (in millions, except percentage data):

In the event of a decline in the fair value of the pledged collateral under these agreements, the Company may be required to transfer cash or additional securities as pledged collateral. Interest expense totaled $45 million, $8 million and $1 million for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

5. Derivative Instruments

The Company enters into financial derivative transactions, including swaps, put-swaptions, futures and options to reduce and manage business risks. These transactions manage the risk of a change in the value, yield, price, cash flows, credit quality or degree of exposure with respect to assets, liabilities or future cash flows that the Company has acquired or incurred. The Company does not account for freestanding derivatives as either fair value or cash flow hedges as might be permitted if specific hedging documentation requirements were followed. As a result, freestanding derivatives are carried at fair value on the balance sheet with settlements and changes in fair value recorded in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments.

With respect to the Company’s interest rate swaps, total return swaps, and cross-currency swaps, the Company records the income related to periodic interest payment settlements within net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments. Although the Company does not account for these as cash flow hedges, the income from these settlements is considered operating income due to the cash settlement nature and is reported, as such, within the Company’s segment related disclosure within pretax adjusted operating earnings.

The Company manages the potential credit exposure for over-the-counter derivative contracts through evaluation of the counterparty credit standing, collateral agreements, and master netting agreements. The Company is exposed to credit-related losses in the event of nonperformance by counterparties, however, it does not anticipate nonperformance. There were no charges due to nonperformance by derivative counterparties in 2023, 2022 or 2021.

Embedded Derivatives—Product Liabilities

Certain product features, including the index-linked crediting option offered in connection with fixed index annuities and RILAs issued by the Company, are classified as embedded derivatives. These embedded derivatives are separated for accounting purposes and are carried at fair value. These embedded derivatives are reported within other contract holder funds in the Consolidated Balance Sheets consistent with the host contract. The results from changes in value of these embedded derivatives are reported in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments in the Consolidated Income Statements.

See Note 10 - Other Contract Holder Funds of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information on the accounting policies for these embedded derivatives within fixed index and registered index-linked annuities.

Embedded Derivatives—Funds Withheld Reinsurance Agreements

The Company has recorded an embedded derivative liability related to the Athene coinsurance agreement (the “Athene Embedded Derivative”) in accordance with FASB ASC 815-15-55-107 and 108,“Derivatives and Hedging Case B: Reinsurer’s Receivable Arising from a Modified Coinsurance Arrangement”as Jackson’s obligation under the Reinsurance Agreement is based on the total return of investments in a segregated funds withheld account rather than Jackson’s own creditworthiness. As the Reinsurance Agreement transfers the economics of the investments in the segregated funds withheld account to Athene, it will receive an investment return equivalent to owning the underlying assets. At inception of the Reinsurance Agreement, the Athene Embedded Derivative was valued at zero. Additionally, the inception fair value of the investments in the segregated funds withheld account differed from their book value and, accordingly, the amortization of this difference is reported in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments in the Consolidated Income Statements, while the investments are held. Subsequent to the effective date of the Reinsurance Agreement, the Athene Embedded Derivative is measured at fair value with changes reported in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments in the Consolidated Income Statements. The Athene Embedded Derivative Liability is included in funds withheld payable under reinsurance treaties in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. See “Athene Reinsurance” in Note 8 of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for additional information on the Athene Reinsurance Transaction.

A summary of the aggregate contractual or notional amounts and fair values of the Company’s freestanding and embedded derivative instruments are as follows (in millions):

(1) The notional amount for swaps and swaptions represents the stated principal balance used as a basis for calculating payments. The contractual amount for futures and options represents the market exposure of open positions.

(2) Variation margin is considered settlement resulting in the netting of cash received/paid for variation margin against the fair value of the trades.

(3) Included within other contract holder funds on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The non-performance risk adjustment is included in the balance above.

(4) Included within funds withheld payable under reinsurance treaties on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

(1) The notional amount for swaps and swaptions represents the stated principal balance used as a basis for calculating payments. The contractual amount for futures and options represents the market exposure of open positions.

(2) Variation margin is considered settlement resulting in the netting of cash received/paid for variation margin against the fair value of the trades.

(3) Included within other contract holder funds on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The non-performance risk adjustment is included in the balance above.

(4) Included within funds withheld payable under reinsurance treaties on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

The following table reflects the results of the Company’s derivatives, including gains (losses) and change in fair value of freestanding derivative instruments and embedded derivatives (in millions):

All of the Company’s trade agreements for freestanding, over-the-counter derivatives, contain credit downgrade provisions that allow a party to assign or terminate derivative transactions if the counterparty’s credit rating declines below an established limit. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the fair value of the Company’s net non-cleared, over-the-counter derivative assets by counterparty were $117 million and $885 million, respectively, and held collateral was $841 million and $858 million, respectively, related to these agreements. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the fair value of the Company’s net non-cleared, over-the-counter derivative liabilities by counterparty were $937 million and $1,680 million, respectively, and provided collateral was $751 million and $1,650 million, respectively, related to these agreements. If all of the downgrade provisions had been triggered at December 31, 2023 and 2022, in aggregate, the Company would have had to disburse $910 million and $30 million, respectively, and would have been allowed to claimnil and $27 million, respectively.

The Company pledged collateral with a carrying value of $2,616 million and $1,641 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, for initial margin related to uncleared margin for over-the-counter derivatives and exchange-traded futures. Variation margin on exchange traded futures is settled through the netting of cash paid/received for variation margin against the fair value of the trades.

Offsetting Assets and Liabilities

The Company’s derivative instruments, repurchase agreements and securities lending agreements are subject to master netting arrangements and collateral arrangements. A master netting arrangement with a counterparty creates a right of offset for amounts due to and due from that same counterparty that is enforceable in the event of a default or bankruptcy. The Company recognizes amounts subject to master netting arrangements on a gross basis within the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

The following tables present the gross and net information about the Company’s financial instruments subject to master netting arrangements (in millions):

(1) Represents the amount that could be offset under master netting or similar arrangements that management elects not to offset on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

(2) Excludes initial margin amounts for exchange-traded derivatives.

(1) Represents the amount that could be offset under master netting or similar arrangements that management elects not to offset on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

(2) Excludes initial margin amounts for exchange-traded derivatives.

In the above tables, the amounts of assets or liabilities presented in the Company’s Consolidated Balance Sheets are offset first by financial instruments that have the right of offset under master netting or similar arrangements with any remaining amount reduced by the amount of cash and securities collateral. The actual amount of collateral may be greater than amounts presented in the tables. The above tables exclude net embedded derivative asset (liability) of $(2,090) million and $(1,136) million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, as these derivatives are not subject to master netting arrangements. The above tables also exclude the funds withheld embedded derivative asset (liability) of $2,468 million and $3,158 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022.

6. Fair Value Measurements

Fair value measurements are based upon observable and unobservable inputs. Observable inputs reflect market data obtained from independent sources, while unobservable inputs reflect the Company’s view of market assumptions in the absence of observable market information. The Company utilizes valuation techniques that maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs. All financial assets and liabilities measured at fair value are required to be classified into one of the following categories:

In many situations, inputs used to measure the fair value of an asset or liability may fall into different levels of the fair value hierarchy. In these situations, the Company determines the level in which the fair value falls based upon the lowest level input that is significant to the determination of the fair value. As a result, both observable and unobservable inputs may be used in the determination of fair values that the Company has classified within Level 3.

The Company determines the fair values of certain financial assets and liabilities based on quoted market prices, where available. The Company may also determine fair value based on estimated future cash flows discounted at the appropriate current market rate. When appropriate, fair values reflect adjustments for counterparty credit quality, the Company’s credit standing, liquidity and risk margins on unobservable inputs.

Where quoted market prices are not available, fair value estimates are made at a point in time, based on relevant market data, as well as the best information about the individual financial instrument. At times, illiquid market conditions may result in inactive markets for certain of the Company’s financial instruments. In such instances, there may be no or limited observable market data for these assets and liabilities. Fair value estimates for financial instruments deemed to be in an illiquid market are based on judgments regarding current economic conditions, liquidity discounts, currency, credit and interest rate risks, loss experience and other factors. These fair values are estimates and involve considerable uncertainty and variability as a result of the inputs selected and may differ materially from the values that would have been used had an active market existed. As a result of market inactivity, such calculated fair value estimates may not be realizable in an immediate sale or settlement of the instrument. In addition, changes in the underlying assumptions used in the fair value measurement technique could significantly affect these fair value estimates.

The following table summarizes the fair value and carrying value of the Company’s financial instruments (in millions):

The following is a discussion of the methodologies used to determine fair values of the financial instruments measured on a recurring basis reported in the following tables.

Debt and Equity Securities

The fair values for debt and equity securities are determined using information available from independent pricing services, broker-dealer quotes, or internally derived estimates. Priority is given to publicly available prices from independent sources, when available. Securities for which the independent pricing service does not provide a quotation are either submitted to independent broker-dealers for prices or priced internally. Typical inputs used by these three pricing methods include reported trades, benchmark yields, credit spreads, liquidity premiums and/or estimated cash flows based on default and prepayment assumptions.

As a result of typical trading volumes and the lack of specific quoted market prices for most debt securities, independent pricing services will normally derive the security prices through recently reported trades for identical or similar securities, making adjustments through the reporting date based upon available market observable information as outlined above. If there are no recently reported trades, the independent pricing services and broker-dealers may use matrix or pricing model processes to develop a security price where future cash flow expectations are developed based upon collateral performance and discounted at relevant market rates. Certain securities are priced using broker-dealer quotes, which may utilize proprietary inputs and models. Additionally, the majority of these quotes are non-binding. These securities are classified as Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy.

Included in the pricing of asset-backed securities are estimates of the rate of future prepayments of principal over the remaining life of the securities. Such estimates are derived based on the characteristics of the underlying structure and prepayment assumptions believed to be relevant for the underlying collateral. Actual prepayment experience may vary from these estimates.

Internally derived estimates may be used to develop a fair value for securities for which the Company is unable to obtain either a reliable price from an independent pricing service or a suitable broker-dealer quote. These fair value estimates may incorporate Level 2 and Level 3 inputs, as defined below, and are generally derived using expected future cash flows, discounted at market interest rates available from market sources based on the credit quality and duration of the instrument. For securities that may not be reliably priced using these internally developed pricing models, a fair value may be estimated using indicative market prices. These prices are indicative of an exit price, but the assumptions used to establish the fair value may not be observable or corroborated by market observable information and, therefore, represent Level 3 inputs.

The Company performs an analysis on the prices and credit spreads received from third parties to ensure that the prices represent a reasonable estimate of the fair value. This process involves quantitative and qualitative analysis and is overseen by investment and accounting professionals. Examples of procedures performed include initial and ongoing review of third-party pricing service methodologies, review of pricing statistics and trends, back testing recent trades and monitoring of trading volumes. In addition, the Company considers whether prices received from independent broker-dealers represent a reasonable estimate of fair value using internal and external cash flow models, which are developed based on spreads and, when available, market indices. As a result of this analysis, if the Company determines there is a more appropriate fair value based upon the available market data, the price received from the third party may be adjusted accordingly.

For those securities that were internally valued at December 31, 2023 and 2022, the pricing model used by the Company utilizes current spread levels of similarly rated securities to determine the market discount rate for the security. Furthermore, appropriate risk premiums for illiquidity and non-performance are incorporated in the discount rate. Cash flows, as estimated by the Company using issuer-specific default statistics and prepayment assumptions, are discounted to determine an estimated fair value.

On an ongoing basis, the Company reviews the independent pricing services’ valuation methodologies and related inputs and evaluates the various types of securities in its investment portfolio to determine an appropriate fair value hierarchy distribution based upon trading activity and the observability of inputs. Based on the results of this evaluation, each price is classified into Level 1, 2, or 3. Most prices provided by independent pricing services are classified into Level 2 due to their use of market observable inputs.

Limited Partnerships

Fair values for limited partnership interests, which are included in other invested assets, are generally determined using the proportion of the Company’s investment in the value of the net assets of each fund (“NAV equivalent”) as a practical expedient for fair value, and generally, are recorded on a three-month lag. No adjustments to these amounts were deemed necessary at December 31, 2023 and 2022. As a result of using the net asset value per share practical expedient, limited partnership interests are not classified in the fair value hierarchy.

The Company’s limited partnership interests are not redeemable, and distributions received are generally the result of liquidation of the underlying assets of the partnerships. The Company generally has the ability under the partnership agreements to sell its interest to another limited partner with the prior written consent of the general partner. In cases when the Company expects to sell the limited partnership interest, the estimated sales price is used to determine the fair value rather than the practical expedient. Limited partnership interests expected to be sold are classified as Level 2 in the fair value hierarchy.

In cases when a limited partnership’s financial statements are unavailable and a NAV equivalent is not available or practical, the fair value may be based on an internally developed model or provided by the general partner as determined using private transactions, information obtained from the primary co-investor or underlying company, or financial metrics provided by the lead sponsor. These investments are classified as Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy.

Policy loans are funds provided to policyholders in return for a claim on the policies values and function like demand deposits, which are redeemable upon repayment, death or surrender, and there is only one market price at which the transaction could be settled – the then current carrying value. The funds provided are limited to the cash surrender value of the underlying policy. The nature of policy loans is to have a negligible default risk as the loans are fully collateralized by the value of the policy. Policy loans do not have a stated maturity and the balances and accrued interest are repaid either by the policyholder or with proceeds from the policy. Due to the collateralized nature of policy loans and unpredictable timing of payments, the Company believes the carrying value of policy loans approximates fair value. The reinsurance related component of policy loans at fair value under the fair value option have been classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

Freestanding derivative instruments are reported at fair value, which reflects the estimated amounts, net of payment accruals, that the Company would receive or pay upon sale or termination of the contracts at the reporting date. Changes in fair value are included in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments. Freestanding derivatives priced using third-party pricing services incorporate inputs that are observable in the market. Inputs used to value derivatives include interest rate swap curves, credit spreads, interest rates, counterparty credit risk, equity volatility and equity index levels.

Freestanding derivative instruments classified as:

•Level 1 include futures, which are traded on active exchanges.

•Level 2 include interest rate swaps, cross currency swaps, cross-currency forwards, credit default swaps, total return swaps, put-swaptions and certain equity index call and put options. These derivative valuations are determined by third-party pricing services using pricing models with inputs that are observable in the market or can be derived principally from, or corroborated by, observable market data.

•Level 3 include interest rate contingent options that are valued by third-party pricing services utilizing significant unobservable inputs.

Cash and Cash Equivalents

Cash and cash equivalents primarily include money market instruments and bank deposits. Cash equivalents also includes all highly liquid securities and other investments purchased with an original or remaining maturity of three months or less at the date of purchase. Certain money market instruments are valued using unadjusted quoted prices in active markets and are classified as Level 1.

Funds Withheld Payable Under Reinsurance Treaties

The funds withheld payable under reinsurance treaties includes both the funds withheld payable that are held at fair value under the fair value option and the funds withheld embedded derivative and are both considered Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy.

•The fair value of the funds withheld payable that are held at fair value under the fair value option is equal to the fair value of the assets held as collateral, which primarily consists of policy loans using industry standard valuation techniques.

•The funds withheld embedded derivative is determined based upon a total return swap technique referencing the fair value of the investments held under the reinsurance contract and requires certain significant unobservable inputs.

Separate Account Assets

Separate account assets are comprised of investments in mutual funds that transact regularly, but do not trade in active markets as they are not publicly available, and are categorized as Level 2 assets.

Market Risk Benefits

Variable annuity contracts issued by the Company may include various guaranteed minimum death, withdrawal, income and accumulation benefits, which are classified as MRBs and measured at fair value.

Our MRB assets and MRB liabilities are reported separately on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. Increases to an asset or decreases to a liability are described as favorable changes to fair value. Changes in fair value are reported in Market risk benefits (gains) losses, net on the Consolidated Income Statements. However, the change in fair value related to our own non-performance risk is recognized as a component of other comprehensive income ("OCI") and is reported in Change in non-performance on market risk benefits, net of tax expense (benefit) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

Variable annuity guaranteed benefit features classified as MRBs, which have explicit fees, are measured using the attributed fee method. Under the attributed fee method, fair value is measured as the difference between the present value of projected future liabilities and the present value of projected attributed fees. At the inception of the contract, the Company attributes to the MRB a portion of total fees expected to be assessed against the contract holder's account value to offset the projected claims over the lifetime of the contract. The attributed fee is expressed as a percentage of total projected future fees at inception of the contract. This percentage of total projected fees is considered a fixed term of the MRB feature and is held static over the life of the contract. This percentage may not exceed 100% of the total projected contract fees as of contract inception. As the Company may issue contracts that have projected future liabilities greater than the projected future guaranteed benefit fees at issue, the Company may also attribute mortality and expense charges when performing this calculation. The percentage of guaranteed benefit fees and the percentage of mortality and expense charges may not exceed 100% of the total projected fees as of contract inception. In subsequent valuations, both the present value of future projected liabilities and the present value of projected attributed fees are remeasured based on current market conditions and policyholder behavior assumptions.

The Company has ceded the guaranteed minimum income benefit (“GMIB”) features elected on certain annuity contracts to an unrelated party. The GMIBs ceded under this reinsurance treaty are classified as a MRB in their entirety. The reinsurance contract is measured at fair value and reported in Reinsurance recoverable on market risk benefits. Changes in fair value are recorded in Market risk benefits (gains) losses, net. Due to the inability to economically reinsure or hedge new issues of the GMIB, the Company discontinued offering the benefit in 2009.

Fair values for MRBs related to variable annuities, including the contract reinsuring GMIB features, are calculated using internally developed models because active, observable markets do not exist for those guaranteed benefits.

The fair value calculation is based on the present value of future cash flows comprised of future expected benefit payments, less future attributed rider fees, over the lives of the contracts. Estimating these cash flows requires numerous estimates and subjective judgments related to capital market inputs, as well as actuarially determined assumptions related to expectations concerning policyholder behavior. Capital market inputs include expected market rates of return, market volatility, correlations of market index returns to fund returns, and discount rates, which includes an adjustment for non-performance risk. The more significant actuarial assumptions include benefit utilization by policyholders, lapse, mortality, and withdrawal rates. Best estimate assumptions plus risk margins are used as applicable.

At each valuation date, the fair value calculation reflects expected returns based on treasury rates as of that date to determine the value of expected future cash flows produced in a stochastic process. Volatility assumptions are based on a weighting of available market data for implied market volatility for durations up to 10 years, grading to a historical volatility level by year 15, where such long-term historical volatility levels contain an explicit risk margin. Non-performance risk is incorporated into the calculation through the adjustment of the risk-free rate curve based on credit spreads for debt and debt-like instruments issued by the Company or its insurance operating subsidiaries, adjusted, as necessary, to reflect the financial strength ratings of the issuing insurance subsidiaries. Risk margins are also incorporated into the model assumptions, particularly for policyholder behavior. Estimates of future policyholder behavior are subjective and are based primarily on the Company’s experience.

As markets change, mature and evolve and actual policyholder behavior emerges, management continually evaluates the appropriateness of its assumptions for the fair value model.

The use of the models and assumptions described above requires a significant amount of judgment. Management believes this results in an amount that the Company would be required to transfer for a liability, or receive for an asset, to or from a willing buyer or seller, if one existed, for those market participants to assume the risks associated with the guaranteed benefits and the related reinsurance. However, the ultimate settlement amount of the asset or liability, which is currently unknown, could likely be significantly different than this fair value.

The longevity riders issued on fixed index annuities are classified as MRBs and measured at fair value. Similar to the variable annuity guaranteed benefit features, these contracts have explicit fees and are measured using the attributed fee method. The Company attributes a percentage of total projected future fees expected to be assessed against the policyholder to offset the projected future claims over the lifetime of the contract. If the fees attributed are insufficient to offset the claims at issue, the shortfall is borrowed from the host contract rather than recognizing a loss at inception.

RILA

RILA guaranteed benefit features are classified as MRBs and measured at fair value. Unlike variable or fixed index annuities, RILA products do not have explicit fees and are measured using an option-based method. The fair value measurement represents the present value of future claims payable by the MRB feature. At inception, the value of the MRB is deducted from the value of the contract resulting in no gain or loss.

See Note 12 - Market Risk Benefits of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for more information regarding MRBs.

The fair value of the index-linked crediting derivative feature embedded in fixed index annuities, included in Annuity Reserves in the above tables, is calculated using the closed form Black-Scholes Option Pricing model or Monte Carlo simulations, as appropriate for the type of option, incorporating such factors as the volatility of returns, the level of interest rates and the time remaining until the option expires. Additionally, although not a significant input, assumed withdrawal rates are used to estimate the expected volume of embedded options that will be realized by policyholders.

RILA

The fair value of the index-linked crediting derivative feature embedded in RILAs, included in Annuity Reserves in the above table, is calculated using the closed form Black-Scholes Option Pricing model, incorporating such factors as the volatility of returns, the level of interest rates and the time remaining until the option expires. Additionally, although not a significant input, assumed withdrawal rates are used to estimate the expected volume of embedded options that will be realized by policyholders.

Notes Issued by Consolidated VIEs

These notes are issued by CLOs and are carried at fair value under the fair value option based on the fair values of corresponding fixed maturity collateral. The CLO liabilities are also reduced by the fair value of the beneficial interest the Company retains in the CLO and the carrying value of any beneficial interests that represent compensation for services. As the notes are valued based on the reference collateral, they are classified as Level 2.

Fair Value Option

The Company elected the fair value option for debt securities related to certain consolidated investments totaling $2,037 million and $2,014 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. These debt securities are reflected on the Company’s Consolidated Balance Sheets as debt securities, at fair value under the fair value option.

The Company has elected the fair value option for certain funds withheld assets, which are held as collateral for reinsurance, totaling $4,054 million and $4,160 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, as discussed above, and includes mortgage loans as discussed below.

The Company elected the fair value option for certain mortgage loans held under the funds withheld reinsurance agreement with Athene. The fair value option was elected for these mortgage loans, purchased or funded after December 31, 2021, to mitigate inconsistency in earnings that would otherwise result between these mortgage loan assets and the funds withheld liability, including the associated embedded derivative, and are valued using third-party pricing services. Changes in fair value are reflected in net investment income on the Consolidated Income Statements.

The fair value and aggregate contractual principal for mortgage loans where the fair value option was elected after December 31, 2021, were as follows (in millions):

As of December 31, 2023, no loans in good standing for which the fair value option was elected were in non-accrual status, and no loans were more than 90 days past due and still accruing interest.

The Company elected the fair value option for notes issued by consolidated VIEs totaling $1,988 million and $1,732 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

Income and changes in unrealized gains and losses on other assets for which the Company has elected the fair value option are immaterial to the Company’s Consolidated Financial Statements.

Assets and Liabilities Measured at Fair Value on a Recurring Basis

The following tables summarize the Company’s assets and liabilities that are carried at fair value by hierarchy levels (in millions):

Assets and Liabilities Measured at Fair Value Using Significant Unobservable Inputs (Level 3)

Level 3 Assets and Liabilities by Price Source

The table below presents the balances of Level 3 assets and liabilities measured at fair value with their corresponding pricing sources (in millions):

External pricing sources for securities represent unadjusted prices from independent pricing services and independent indicative broker quotes where pricing inputs are not readily available.

Quantitative Information Regarding Internally-Priced Level 3 Assets and Liabilities

The table below presents quantitative information on internally priced Level 3 assets and liabilities that use significant unobservable inputs (in millions):

(1)Mortality rates vary by attained age, tax qualification status, guaranteed benefit election, and duration. The range displayed reflects ages from the minimum issue age for the benefit through age 95, which corresponds to the typical maturity age. A mortality improvement assumption is also applied.

(2)Base lapse rates vary by contract-level factors, such as product type, surrender charge schedule and optional benefits election. Lapse rates are further adjusted based on the degree to which a guaranteed benefit is in-the-money, with lower lapse applying when benefits are more in-the-money. Lapse rates are also adjusted to reflect lower lapse expectations when guaranteed benefits are utilized.

(3 The utilization rate represents the expected percentage of contracts that will utilize the benefit through annuitization (GMIB) or commencement of withdrawals (GMWB). Utilization may vary by benefit type, attained age, duration, tax qualification status, benefit provision, and degree to which the guaranteed benefit is in-the-money.

(4)The withdrawal rate represents the percentage of annual withdrawal assumed relative to the maximum allowable withdrawal amount under the free partial withdrawal provision or the GMWB, as applicable. Free partial withdrawal rates vary based on the product type and duration. Withdrawal rates on contracts with a GMWB vary based on attained age, tax qualification status, GMWB type and GMWB benefit provisions.

(5)Non-performance risk adjustment is applied as a spread over the risk-free rate to determine the rate used to discount the related cash flows and varies by projection year.

(6)Long-term equity volatility represents the equity volatility beyond the period for which observable equity volatilities are available.

(1)Mortality rates vary by attained age, tax qualification status, guaranteed benefit election, and duration. The range displayed reflects ages from the minimum issue age for the benefit through age 95, which corresponds to the typical maturity age. A mortality improvement assumption is also applied.

(2)Base lapse rates vary by contract-level factors, such as product type, surrender charge schedule and optional benefits election. Lapse rates are further adjusted based on the degree to which a guaranteed benefit is in-the-money, with lower lapse applying when benefits are more in-the-money. Lapse rates are also adjusted to reflect lower lapse expectations when guaranteed benefits are utilized.

(3)The utilization rate represents the expected percentage of contracts that will utilize the benefit through annuitization (GMIB) or commencement of withdrawals (GMWB). Utilization may vary by benefit type, attained age, duration, tax qualification status, benefit provision, and degree to which the guaranteed benefit is in-the-money.

(4)The withdrawal rate represents the percentage of annual withdrawal assumed relative to the maximum allowable withdrawal amount under the free partial withdrawal provision or the GMWB, as applicable. Free partial withdrawal rates vary based on the product type and duration. Withdrawal rates on contracts with a GMWB vary based on attained age, tax qualification status, GMWB type and GMWB benefit provisions.

(5)Non-performance risk adjustment is applied as a spread over the risk-free rate to determine the rate used to discount the related cash flows and varies by projection year.

(6)Long-term equity volatility represents the equity volatility beyond the period for which observable equity volatilities are available.

Sensitivity to Changes in Unobservable Inputs

The following is a general description of sensitivities of significant unobservable inputs and their impact on the fair value measurement for the assets and liabilities reflected in the tables above.

At December 31, 2023 and 2022, securities of $93 million and $9 million, respectively, are fair valued using techniques incorporating unobservable inputs and are classified in Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy. For these assets, their unobservable inputs and ranges of possible inputs do not materially affect their fair valuations and have been excluded from the quantitative information in the tables above.

Policy loans that support funds withheld reinsurance agreements that are held at fair value under the fair value option on the Company’s Consolidated Balance Sheets are excluded from the tables above. These policy loans do not have a stated maturity and the balances, plus accrued investment income, are repaid either by the policyholder or with proceeds from the policy. Due to the collateralized nature of policy loans and unpredictable timing of payments, the Company believes the carrying value of policy loans, which includes accrued investment income, approximates fair value and is classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

The fair value of funds withheld payable under the Reassure America Life Insurance Company ("REALIC") reinsurance treaties, is determined based upon the fair value of the funds withheld investments held by the Company and is excluded from the tables above.

The funds withheld payable under the Athene reinsurance treaty includes the Athene embedded derivative which is measured at fair value. The valuation of the embedded derivative utilizes a total return swap technique that incorporates the fair value of the invested assets supporting the reinsurance agreement as a component of the valuation. As a result, these valuations for the funds withheld payable under the REALIC reinsurance treaties and the Athene embedded derivative require certain significant inputs that are generally not observable and, accordingly, the valuation is considered Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy.

The GMIB reinsurance recoverable fair value calculation is based on the present value of future cash flows comprised of future expected reinsurance benefit receipts, less future attributed premium payments to reinsurers, over the lives of the contracts. Estimating these cash flows requires actuarially determined assumptions related to expectations concerning policyholder behavior and long-term market volatility. The more significant policyholder behavior actuarial assumptions include benefit utilization, fund allocation, lapse, and mortality.

The MRB asset and liability fair value calculation is based on the present value of future cash flows comprised of future expected benefit payments, less future attributed fees (if applicable), over the lives of the contracts. Estimating these cash flows requires numerous estimates and subjective judgments related to capital market inputs, as well as actuarially determined assumptions related to expectations concerning policyholder behavior. The more significant actuarial assumptions include benefit utilization by policyholders, lapse, mortality, and withdrawal rates. Best estimate assumptions plus risk margins are used as applicable.

The tables below provide roll-forwards for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022 of the financial instruments for which significant unobservable inputs (Level 3) are used in the fair value measurement. Gains and losses in the tables below include changes in fair value due partly to observable and unobservable factors. The Company utilizes derivative instruments to manage the risk associated with certain assets and liabilities. However, the derivative instruments hedging the related risks may not be classified within the same fair value hierarchy level as the associated assets and liabilities. Therefore, the impact of the derivative instruments reported in Level 3 may vary significantly from the total income effect of the hedged instruments.

The components of the amounts included in purchases, sales, issuances and settlements for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022 shown above are as follows (in millions):

In 2023, transfers from Level 3 to Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy were $57 million, transfers from Level 2 to Level 3 were $1,331 million, transfers from Level 3 to NAV were $7 million, and transfers from NAV to Level 3 were $18 million.

During the current year, management determined that the fair value measurements for certain securities, primarily comprised of asset-backed and other debt securities included in funds withheld accounts, which were classified as Level 2 measurements within the fair value hierarchy in prior reporting periods, should be classified as Level 3 fair value measurements. The fair value of these securities is primarily obtained from external sources which may use unobservable inputs, proprietary inputs and models, or inputs or values that cannot be corroborated by market transactions, and should be classified as externally priced Level 3 fair value measurements. The Fair Value on a Recurring Basis table, Level 3 Assets and Liabilities by Price Source table, Level 3 Rollforward table, and Level 3 Purchases, Sales, Issuances and Settlements table reflect this change in classification. In the 2023 tables, securities totaling totaling $1,336 million, were reported as Level 3 and included in “Transfers in and/or (out of) Level 3”. The change in classification did not change the fair value of these securities and did not impact the Consolidated Balance Sheets or Consolidated Income Statements.

In 2022, transfers from Level 3 to Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy were $5 million, transfers from Level 2 to Level 3 were $53 million, and transfers from NAV equivalent to Level 3 were $9 million. There wereno transfers from Level 3 to NAV.

The portion of gains (losses) included in net income (loss) or OCI attributable to the change in unrealized gains and losses on Level 3 financial instruments still held was as follows (in millions):

Fair Value of Financial Instruments Carried at Other Than Fair Value

The table below presents the carrying amount and fair value by fair value hierarchy level of certain financial instruments that are not reported at fair value (in millions):

The following is a discussion of the methodologies used to determine fair values of the financial instruments that are not reported at fair value reported in the table above:

Mortgage Loans

Fair values are generally determined by discounting expected future cash flows at current market interest rates, inclusive of a credit spread, for similar quality loans. For loans whose value is dependent on the underlying property, fair value is the estimated value of the collateral. Certain characteristics considered significant in determining the spread or collateral value may be based on internally developed estimates. As a result, these investments have been classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

Mortgage loans held under the funds withheld reinsurance agreement are valued using third-party pricing services, which may use economic inputs, geographical information, and property specific assumptions in deriving the fair value price. The Company reviews the valuations from these pricing providers to ensure they are reasonable. Due to lack of observable inputs, these investments have been classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

Policy loans are funds provided to policyholders in return for a claim on the policies values and function like demand deposits which are redeemable upon repayment, death or surrender, and there is only one market price at which the transaction could be settled – the then current carrying value. The funds provided are limited to the cash surrender value of the underlying policy. The nature of policy loans is to have a negligible default risk as the loans are fully collateralized by the value of the policy. Policy loans do not have a stated maturity and the balances and accrued interest are repaid either by the policyholder or with proceeds from the policy. Due to the collateralized nature of policy loans and unpredictable timing of payments, the Company believes the carrying value of policy loans approximates fair value. The non-reinsurance related component of policy loans has been classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

FHLBI Capital Stock

FHLBI capital stock, which is included in other invested assets, can only be sold to FHLBI at a constant price of $100 per share. Due to the lack of valuation uncertainty, the investment has been classified as Level 1.

Other Contract Holder Funds

Fair values for immediate annuities without mortality features are derived by discounting the future estimated cash flows using current market interest rates for similar maturities. Fair values for deferred annuities, including the fixed option on variable annuities, fixed annuities, fixed index annuities and RILAs, are determined using projected future cash flows discounted at current market interest rates.

Fair values for guaranteed investment contracts, trust instruments supported by funding agreements and FHLB funding agreements are based on the present value of future cash flows discounted at current market interest rates.

Funds Withheld Payable Under Reinsurance Treaties

The fair value of the funds withheld payable is equal to the fair value of the assets held as collateral, which primarily consists of bonds, mortgages, limited partnerships, and cash and cash equivalents. The fair value of the assets generally uses industry standard valuation techniques as described above and the funds withheld payable components are valued consistent with the assets in the fair value hierarchy and the funds withheld payable is classified in its entirety according to the lowest level input that is significant to the determination of the fair value. The funds withheld payable is classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

Debt

Fair values for the Company’s surplus notes and long-term debt are generally determined by prices obtained from independent broker dealers or discounted cash flow models. Such prices are derived from market observable inputs and are classified as Level 2.

Securities Lending Payable

The Company’s securities lending payable is set equal to the cash collateral received. Due to the short-term nature of the loans, carrying value is a reasonable estimate of fair value and is classified as Level 2.

FHLB Advances

Carrying value of the Company’s FHLB advances, which are included in other liabilities, is considered a reasonable estimate of fair value due to their short-term maturities and are classified as Level 2.

Repurchase Agreements

Carrying value of the Company’s repurchase agreements is considered a reasonable estimate of fair value due to their short-term maturities and are classified as Level 2.

Separate Account Liabilities

The values of separate account liabilities are set equal to the values of separate account assets, which are comprised of investments in mutual funds that transact regularly, but do not trade in active markets as they are not publicly available, and, are categorized as Level 2.

7. Deferred Acquisition Costs

Certain costs that are directly related to the successful acquisition of new or renewal insurance business are capitalized as DAC in the period they are incurred. These costs primarily pertain to commissions and certain costs associated with policy issuance and underwriting. All other acquisition costs are expensed as incurred.

Contracts are grouped into cohorts by contract type and issue year. For traditional and limited-payment insurance contracts, contracts are grouped consistent with the groupings used in estimating the associated liability. DAC are amortized into expense on a constant level basis over the expected term of the grouped contracts. For traditional and limited-payment insurance contracts, amortization is determined based on projected in force amounts. For non-traditional contracts, amortization is determined based on projected policy counts.

The expected term used to amortize DAC is determined using best estimate assumptions, including mortality and persistency, consistent with the best estimate assumptions used to determine the reserve for future policy benefits, MRBs, and additional liabilities for applicable contracts. For amortization of DAC related to contracts without these balances, assumptions used to determine expected term are developed in a similar manner. The amortization rate is determined using all information available as of the end of the reporting period, including actual experience and any assumption updates. Annually, or as circumstances warrant, a comprehensive review of assumptions is conducted and assumptions are revised as appropriate. If assumptions are revised, the amortization rate is calculated using revised assumptions such that the effect of revised assumptions is recognized prospectively as of the beginning of that reporting period.

Unamortized DAC are written off when a contract is internally replaced and substantially changed. Substantially unchanged contracts are treated as a continuation of the replaced contract, with no change to the unamortized DAC at the time of the replacement.

Part II |Item 8. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements | 7. Deferred Acquisition Costs

The following table presents the roll-forward of the DAC (in millions). The current period amortization is based on the end of the period estimates of mortality and persistency. The amortization pattern is revised on a prospective basis at the beginning of the period based on the period’s actual experience.

The assumptions used in the amortization of deferred acquisition costs consist of mortality and persistency. We have undertaken a comprehensive review of the assumptions used in the amortization of deferred acquisition costs, and there was no significant impact from changes to the mortality or persistency assumptions.

8. Reinsurance

The Company, through its subsidiary insurance companies, assumes and cedes reinsurance from and to other insurance companies to limit losses from large exposures. However, if the reinsurer is unable to meet its obligations, the originating issuer of the coverage retains the liability. The Company reinsures certain of its risks to other reinsurers under a coinsurance, coinsurance with funds withheld, modified coinsurance, or yearly renewable term basis. The Company regularly monitors the financial strength ratings of its reinsurers.

Athene Reinsurance

The Company entered into a funds withheld coinsurance agreement with Athene effective June 1, 2020, to reinsure on a 100% quota share basis, a block of Jackson’s in-force fixed and fixed index annuity product liabilities in exchange for a $1.2 billion ceding commission. The coinsurance with funds withheld agreement ("the coinsurance agreement") required Jackson to establish a segregated account in which the investments supporting the ceded obligations are maintained. While the economic benefits of the investments flow to Athene, Jackson retains physical possession and legal ownership of the investments supporting the reserve. Upon closing of the transaction, Jackson placed investments into the segregated account with a statutory book value of $25.6 billion. The investments maintained in the segregated account are valued at statutory carrying value for purposes of determining periodic settlement amounts under the Athene coinsurance agreement. Further, the investments in the segregated account are not available to settle any policyholder obligations other than those specifically covered by the coinsurance agreement and are not available to settle obligations to general creditors of Jackson. The profit and loss with respect to obligations ceded to Athene are included in periodic net settlements pursuant to the coinsurance agreement. To further support its obligations under the coinsurance agreement, Athene procured $1.2 billion in letters of credit for Jackson’s benefit and established a trust account for Jackson’s benefit, which had a book value of approximately $83 million at December 31, 2023.

Pursuant to the Athene coinsurance agreement, the Company holds certain assets as collateral. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, assets held as collateral in the segregated custody account were $16.3 billion and $19.4 billion, respectively.

Swiss Re Reinsurance

Jackson has three retrocession reinsurance agreements (“retro treaties”) with Swiss Reinsurance Company Ltd. (“SRZ”). Pursuant to these retro treaties, Jackson ceded certain blocks of business to SRZ on a 100% coinsurance with funds withheld basis, subject to pre-existing reinsurance with other parties. As a result of the reinsurance agreements with SRZ, Jackson withholds certain assets, primarily in the form of policy loans and debt securities, as collateral for the reinsurance recoverable.

The Company has also acquired certain blocks of business that are closed to new business and wholly ceded to non-affiliates. These include both direct and assumed accident and health businesses, direct and assumed life insurance business, and certain institutional annuities.

GMIB Reinsurance

The Company’s guaranteed minimum income benefits (GMIBs) are reinsured with an unrelated party. GMIB reinsured benefits are subject to aggregate annual claim limits. Deductibles also apply on reinsurance of GMIB business issued since March 1, 2005. The Company discontinued offering the GMIB in 2009.

Assumed and Ceded Premiums and Benefits Paid or Provided

Assumed and ceded premiums and benefits paid or provided are accounted for on bases consistent with those used in accounting for the original policies issued and the terms of the reinsurance contracts. Premium income and benefit expenses are reported net of reinsurance assumed and ceded.

The effect of reinsurance on premiums and benefits was as follows (in millions):

Reinsurance Recoverables and Reinsured Market Risk Benefits

Ceded reinsurance agreements are reported on a gross basis on the Company’s Consolidated Balance Sheets as an asset for amounts recoverable from reinsurers or as a component of other assets or liabilities for amounts, such as premiums, owed to or due from reinsurers.

Reinsurance recoverables relating to reinsurance of traditional and limited-payment contracts are required to be recognized and measured in a manner consistent with liabilities relating to the underlying reinsured contracts, including using consistent assumptions. Reinsurance contracts may be executed subsequent to the direct contract issue dates, and market interest rates may have changed between the date that the underlying insurance contracts were issued and the date the reinsurance contract is recognized in the financial statements, resulting in the underlying discount rate differing between the direct and reinsured business.

The Company regularly monitors the financial strength ratings of its reinsurers. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the Company had ACL of $29 million and $15 million, respectively, on its reinsurance recoverables, which are reported net of

ACL on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The ACL considers the credit quality of the reinsurer and is generally determined based on probability of default and loss given default assumptions, after considering any applicable collateral arrangements. During 2023, the Company increased its ACL related to a specific reinsurer which was recently ordered into liquidation. The recognized ACL represents our current best estimate of our remaining loss exposure associated with this reinsurer.

For reinsurance recoverables that are collateralized, and the amount of collateral is expected to be adjusted as necessary as a result of fair value changes in the collateral, the Company determines that the expectation of nonpayment of the carrying value of the reinsurance recoverable is zero. If the fair value of the collateral at the reporting date is less than the carrying value of the reinsurance recoverable, the Company recognizes an ACL on the difference between the fair value of the collateral at the reporting date and the carrying value of the reinsurance recoverable. Additions to or releases of the ACL are reported in Death, other policyholder benefits, and changes in reserves, net of deferrals in the Consolidated Income Statements.

Reinsurance recoverable on market risk benefits is recognized at fair value with changes being recognized in current period earnings within market risk benefit (gains) losses, net. Non-performance risk of the reinsurer is incorporated into the calculation through the adjustment of the risk-free rate curve based on credit spreads observed on instruments issued by similarly-rated life insurance companies.

The Company’s reinsurance contract that cedes only the GMIB elected on certain variable annuity products is classified as a reinsurance recoverable on market risk benefits. These reinsured MRBs may have direct MRB balances recorded as either assets or liabilities; however, because the unit of account for the reinsured MRB is the reinsurance contract, the ceded MRB is presented in total within reinsurance recoverable on market risk benefits. The fees used to determine the fair value of the reinsurance recoverable on market risk benefits are those defined in the reinsurance contract.

Guaranteed benefits related to the optional lifetime income rider offered on certain fixed index annuities are MRBs that are reinsured with Athene. The reinsured MRBs are measured using a non-option valuation approach which uses cash flow assumptions and an attributed fee ratio consistent with those used to measure the MRBs on the direct contract and a discount rate that considers the reinsurer’s credit risk. The attributed fee is locked-in at inception of the contract.

Components of the Company’s reinsurance recoverable excluding MRBs were as follows (in millions):

(1) Other annuity benefits primarily attributable to fixed and fixed index annuities reinsured with Athene.

Components of the Company’s reinsurance recoverable on market risk benefits were as follows (in millions):

Reinsurance and Funds Withheld Payable Under Reinsurance Treaties

Under the reinsurance agreement with Athene and the retro treaties with SRZ, the Company maintains ownership of the underlying investments instead of transferring them to the reinsurer and, as a result, records a funds withheld liability payable to the reinsurer. Investment returns earned on withheld assets are paid by the Company to the reinsurer, pursuant to the terms of the agreements. Investment income and net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments are reported net of gains or losses on the funds withheld payable under reinsurance treaties.

The amounts credited to reinsurers on the funds withheld payable is based on the return earned on those assets. The return earned on the assets is subject to the credit risk of the original issuer of the instrument rather than Jackson’s own creditworthiness, which results in an embedded derivative (total return swap).

Funds withheld under reinsurance agreement with Athene

The Company recognizes a liability for the embedded derivative related to the funds withheld under the reinsurance agreement with Athene within funds withheld payable under reinsurance treaties in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The embedded derivative is measured at fair value with changes in fair value reported in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments in the Consolidated Income Statements. At inception of the reinsurance agreement with Athene, the fair value of the withheld investments differed from their book value and, accordingly, while the investments are held, the amortization of this difference is reported in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments in the Consolidated Income Statements. See Note 5 of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for more information on the embedded derivative.

Funds withheld under reinsurance agreements with SRZ

At execution of the retro treaties with SRZ, the Company elected the fair value option for the withheld assets, as well as the related funds withheld payable. Accordingly, the embedded derivative is not bifurcated or separately measured. The funds withheld payable is measured at fair value with changes in fair value reported in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments. The fair value of the funds withheld payable is equal to the fair value of the assets held as collateral.

The following assets and liabilities were held in support of reserves associated with the Company’s funds withheld reinsurance agreements and were reported in the respective financial statement line items in the Consolidated Balance Sheets (in millions):

(1) Certain assets are reported at amortized cost while the fair value of those assets is reported in the embedded derivative in the funds withheld liability.

(2) Includes funds withheld embedded derivative asset (liability) of $2,468 million and $3,158 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

The sources of income related to funds withheld under reinsurance treaties reported in net investment income in the Consolidated Income Statements were as follows (in millions):

(1) Includes $5 million, $(10) million, and $(3) million for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively, related to the change in fair value for securities carried under the fair value option.

(2) Includes $(3) million, $(7) million, andnil for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively, related to the change in fair value for mortgage loans carried under the fair value option.

(3)Includes management fees.

The gains and losses on funds withheld reinsurance treaties as a component of net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments in the Consolidated Income Statements were as follows (in millions):

9. Reserves for Future Policy Benefits and Claims Payable

Reserves for Future Policy Benefits

For non-participating traditional and limited-payment insurance contracts, the reserve for future policy benefits represents the present value of estimated future policy benefits to be paid to or on behalf of policyholders in future periods and certain related expenses less the present value of estimated future net premiums.

Reserves for future policy benefits for non-participating traditional and limited-payment insurance contracts are measured using the net premium ratio ("NPR") measurement model. The NPR measurement model accrues for future policy benefits in proportion to the premium revenue recognized. The reserve for future policy benefits is derived from the Company's best estimate of future net premium and future benefits and expenses, which is based on best estimate assumptions including mortality, persistency, claims expense, and discount rate. On an annual basis, or as circumstances warrant, we conduct a comprehensive review of our current best estimate assumptions based on our experience, industry benchmarking, and other factors, as applicable. Expense assumptions are updated based on estimates of expected non-level costs, such as termination or settlement costs, and costs after the premium-paying period and exclude acquisition costs or any costs that are required to be charged to expenses as incurred. Updates to assumptions are applied on a retrospective basis, and the change in the reserve for future policy benefits resulting from updates to assumptions is reported separately on the Consolidated Income Statements within the (Gain) loss from updating future policy benefits cash flow assumptions, net. Each reporting period the reserve for future policy benefits is updated to reflect actual experience to date.

The Company establishes cohorts, which are groupings used to measure reserves for future policy benefits. In determining cohorts, the Company considered both qualitative and quantitative factors, including the issue year, type of product, product features, and legal entity.

The discount rate used to estimate reserves for future policy benefits is consistent with an upper-medium grade (low-credit risk) fixed-income corporate instrument yield, which has been interpreted to represent a single-A corporate instrument yield. This discount rate curve is determined by fitting a parametric function to yields to maturity and related times to maturity of market observable single-A rated corporate instruments. The discount rate used to recognize interest accretion on the reserves for future policy benefits is locked at the initial measurement of the cohort. Each reporting period, the reserve for future policy benefits is remeasured using the current discount rate. The difference between the reserve calculated using the current discount rate and the reserve calculated using the locked-in discount rate is recorded in OCI.

For limited-payment insurance contracts, premiums are paid over a period shorter than the period over which benefits are provided. Gross premiums received in excess of the net premium are deferred and recognized as a deferred profit liability ("DPL"). The DPL is included within the reserve for future policy benefits and profits are recognized in income as a component of benefit expenses on a constant relationship with the amount of expected future benefit payments. Interest is accreted on the balance of the DPL using the discount rate locked in at the initial measurement of the cohort. Measurement of the DPL uses best estimate assumptions for mortality. These assumptions are similarly subject to the annual review process discussed above.

Additional Liabilities – Universal Life-type

For universal life-type insurance contracts, a liability is recognized for the policyholder’s account value as discussed further in Note 10 of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements. Where these contracts provide additional benefits beyond the account balance or base insurance coverage that are not market risk benefits or embedded derivatives, liabilities in addition to the policyholder’s account value are recognized. These additional liabilities for annuitization, death and other insurance benefits are reported within reserves for future policy benefits and claims payable. The methodology uses a benefit ratio defined as a constant percentage of the assessment base. This ratio is multiplied by current period assessments to determine the reserve accrual for the period. The assumptions used in the measurement of the additional liabilities for annuitization, death and other insurance benefits are based on best estimate assumptions including mortality, persistency, investment returns, and discount rates. These assumptions are similarly subject to the annual review process discussed above. As available-for-sale debt securities are carried at fair value, an adjustment is made to these additional liabilities equal to the change in liability that would have occurred if such securities had been sold at their stated fair value and the proceeds reinvested at current yields. This adjustment, along with the change in net unrealized gains (losses) on available-for-sale debt securities, net of applicable tax, is credited or charged directly to equity as a component of OCI.

See Note 10 - Other Contract Holder Funds of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for more information.

Other Future Policy Benefits and Claims Payable

In conjunction with a prior acquisition, the Company recorded a fair value adjustment at acquisition related to certain annuity and interest-sensitive liability blocks of business to reflect the cost of the interest guarantees within the in-force liabilities, based on the difference between the guaranteed interest rate and an assumed new money guaranteed interest rate at acquisition. This adjustment is included in other future policy benefits and claims payable as disclosed in the table below. This liability is remeasured at the end of each period, taking into account changes in the in-force block. Any resulting change in the liability is recorded as a Gain (loss) from updating future policy benefits cash flow assumptions, net through the Consolidated Income Statements.

In addition, annuity and life claims liabilities in course of settlement are included in other future policy benefits and claims payable as disclosed in the table below.

The following table summarizes the Company’s reserves for future policy benefits and claims payable balances (in millions):

The following tables present the roll-forward of components of reserves for future policy benefits (in millions):

The following table presents the weighted average duration of the reserves for future policy benefits. The weighted average duration represents average cohort-level duration weighted by the benefit reserves amount:

The significant assumptions used in the future policy benefits calculation consist of mortality, persistency, and discount rate. We have undertaken a comprehensive review of the significant assumptions used in the future policy benefits calculation during 2023. Assumptions were unlocked and the impacts of the unlocking on future policy benefits for mortality and persistency were not significant during 2023. The discount rate assumption methodology was updated for additional liabilities – universal life-type insurance contracts, leading to an increase in the discount rate.

The discount rate assumption related to the single-A corporate instrument yield was updated based on current market data. Discount rates decreased in 2023 compared to 2022, based on the duration of the liability. This resulted in an increase in the liability. Refer to the roll-forward above for further details.

The following table presents the amount of undiscounted and discounted expected future gross premiums and expected future benefit payments for future policy benefits for non-participating traditional and limited-payment insurance contracts (in millions). The discounted premiums are calculated using the current discount rate, while the undiscounted cash flows represent the gross cash flows before any discounting is applied:

The following table presents the amount of revenue and interest related to non-participating traditional and limited-pay insurance contracts recognized in the Consolidated Income Statements (in millions):

The following table presents the weighted average interest rate for the reserves for future policy benefits at the cohort's level for the locked-in discount rate (interest accretion rate), and current discount rate, weighted by the cohort's benefit reserve amount:

The following table presents a roll-forward of Closed Block Life additional liabilities for annuitization, death and other insurance benefits (in millions):

The following table presents the weighted average duration of Closed Block Life additional liabilities for annuitization, death and other insurance benefits. The weighted average duration represents average cohort-level duration weighted by the benefit reserves amount:

The significant assumptions used in the additional liability for annuitization, death and other insurance benefits calculation consist of mortality, persistency, investment returns, and crediting rate. We have undertaken a comprehensive review of the significant assumptions used in the additional liability for annuitization, death and other insurance benefits calculations and updated for a decrease in lapse rates and an update to the methodology in determining the long-term earned-rate.

The following table presents assessments and interest expense of Closed Block Life additional liabilities for annuitization, death and other insurance benefits recognized in the Consolidated Income Statements (in millions):

The following table presents the weighted average current discount rate of Closed Block Life additional liabilities for annuitization, death and other insurance benefits, applied at the cohort level weighted by reserve benefit amount:

10. Other Contract Holder Funds

Other contract holder funds represent the policyholder account balance on our universal life-type products, investment contracts, and the fair value of the embedded derivatives associated with the indexed crediting features on our fixed index annuities and registered index-linked annuities.

Universal life type contracts have, as a principal component, an account balance in which interest is credited to policyholders and assessments are deducted for mortality risk and contract administration. The account balance is recognized as a liability within other contract holder funds, and the liability is updated each period for fee and assessment deductions and increased for interest or returns credited to the account balance.

Certain of our universal life type contracts contain features that are not classified as market risk benefits or embedded derivatives but provide additional benefits beyond the account balance or base insurance coverage for which a liability in addition to the account balance is necessary. These additional liabilities for death or other insurance benefits are reported as a component of reserves for future policy benefits and claims payable in the Consolidated Balance Sheets. See Note 9 - Reserves for Future Policy Benefits and Claims Payable of the Notes to the Consolidated Financial Statements for more information regarding these additional liabilities.

Certain contracts without significant mortality or morbidity risk and certain annuities that lack insurance risk are treated as investment contracts. For investment contracts, payments received are reported as liabilities and accounted for in a manner consistent with the accounting for interest-bearing or other financial instruments, within other contract holder funds.

The Company issues a variety of annuity products including fixed annuities, fixed index annuities, registered index-linked annuities, variable annuities and payout annuities. For annuity contracts that are classified as investment contracts, the liability is the account balance as of the reporting date, reported within the other contract holder funds. For the variable annuity products, only the allocations to fixed fund options are reported in other contract holder funds.

For our fixed index annuities and registered index-linked annuities, the equity-linked option issued by the Company is accounted for as an embedded derivative measured at fair value and reported as a component of other contract holder funds on the Consolidated Balance Sheets with changes in fair value recorded in net income within net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments. The fair value is determined using an option-budget method with capital market inputs of market index returns and discount rates as well as actuarial assumptions including lapse, mortality and withdrawal rates. Favorable equity market movements cause increases in future contract holder benefits, resulting in an increase in the fair value of the embedded derivative liability (and vice versa). The Company also establishes a host contract reserve to support the underlying guaranteed account value growth. This host contract liability is included as a component of other contract holder funds on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Interest is accreted to the host contract liability using an effective yield method.

Our annuity products may contain certain features or guarantees that are classified as MRBs. These market risk benefits are a component of the market risk benefits line items in the Consolidated Balance Sheet. See Note 12 - Market Risk Benefits of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for more information regarding market risk benefits.

The Company’s institutional products business is comprised of the guaranteed investment contracts, medium-term funding agreement-backed notes and funding agreements (including agreements issued in conjunction with the Company’s participation in the U.S. Federal Home Loan Bank program) described below.

The Company has established a $27 billion aggregate Global Medium-Term Note ("MTN") program. Jackson National Life Global Funding was formed as a statutory business trust, solely for the purpose of issuing Medium-Term Note instruments to institutional investors, the proceeds of which are deposited with the Company and secured by the issuance of funding agreements. The carrying values at December 31, 2023 and 2022 totaled $5.8 billion and $5.9 billion, respectively.

Those Medium-Term Note instruments issued in a foreign currency have been hedged for changes in exchange rates using cross-currency swaps. The unrealized foreign currency gains and losses on those Medium-Term Note instruments are included in the carrying value of the trust instruments supported by funding agreements.

Trust instrument liabilities are adjusted to reflect the effects of foreign currency translation gains and losses using exchange rates as of the reporting date. Foreign currency translation gains and losses are included in net gains (losses) on derivatives and investments.

Jackson is a member of the FHLBI primarily for the purpose of participating in the bank’s mortgage-collateralized loan advance program with long-term funding facilities. Advances are in the form of funding agreements, short-term and long-term borrowings issued to FHLBI. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the Company held $108 million and $146 million of FHLBI capital stock, respectively, supporting $2.3 billion and $2.1 billion in funding agreements and short-term and long-term borrowings at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the funding agreements and short-term and long-term borrowings were collateralized by mortgage-related securities and commercial mortgage loans with a carrying value of $3.5 billion and $3.1 billion, respectively.

The following table presents the liabilities for other contract holder funds (in millions):

The following table presents a roll-forward of other contract holder funds, gross of reinsurance (in millions):

The following table presents weighted average crediting rate, net amount at risk, and cash surrender value of contract holder account balances (dollars in millions):

(1) Weighted average crediting rate is the average crediting rate weighted by contract holder account balances invested in fixed account funds.

(2) Net amount at risk represents the standard excess benefit base for guaranteed death benefits on universal life type products. The net amount at risk associated with market risk benefits are presented within Note 12 of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.

(3) Cash surrender value represents the amount of the contract holder’s account balance distributable at the balance sheet date less the applicable surrender charges.

At both December 31, 2023 and 2022, excluding reinsurance business, approximately 92% of the Company’s annuity account values correspond to crediting rates that are at the minimum guaranteed interest rates, respectively. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, excluding reinsurance business, approximately 64% and 65% of the Company’s closed block life account values correspond to crediting rates that are at the minimum guaranteed interest rates, respectively.

The following table presents contract holder account balances invested in fixed account funds by range of guaranteed minimum crediting rates and the related range of the difference between rates being credited to other contract holder funds and the respective guaranteed minimums (in millions):

Part II |Item 8. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements | 11. Separate Account Assets and Liabilities

11. Separate Account Assets and Liabilities

The Company issues variable contracts through its separate accounts for which investment income and investment gains and losses accrue directly to, and investment risk is borne by, the contract holder (traditional variable annuities). The Company also issues variable annuity and life contracts through separate accounts where the Company contractually guarantees to the contract holder (variable contracts with guarantees) either a) return of no less than total deposits made to the account adjusted for any partial withdrawals, b) total deposits made to the account adjusted for any partial withdrawals plus a minimum return, or c) the highest account value on a specified anniversary date adjusted for any withdrawals following the contract anniversary. These guarantees include benefits that are payable in the event of death (guaranteed minimum death benefits, or "GMDB"), at annuitization ("GMIB"), upon the depletion of funds ("GMWB") or at the end of a specified period ("GMAB"). These guarantees are classified as market risk benefits. See Note 12 - Market Risk Benefits of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for more information regarding market risk benefits.

The separate account assets supporting the variable portion of both traditional variable annuities and variable contracts with guarantees are carried at fair value and reported as summary total separate account assets with an equivalent summary total reported for separate account liabilities. At December 31, 2023 and 2022, the assets and liabilities associated with variable life and annuity contracts were $220 billion and $196 billion, respectively. Investment risks associated with market value changes are borne by the contract holders, except to the extent of minimum guarantees made by the Company.

Separate account net investment income, net investment realized and unrealized gains and losses, and the related liability changes are offset within the same line item in the Consolidated Income Statements. Amounts assessed against the contract holders for mortality, variable annuity benefit guarantees, administrative, and other services are reported in revenue as fee income.

Included in the separate account assets and liabilities described above is a Jackson issued group variable annuity contract designed for use in connection with and issued to the Company’s Defined Contribution Retirement Plan. These deposits are allocated to the Jackson National Separate Account - II, which had balances of $198 million and $285 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. The Company receives administrative fees for managing the funds. These fees are recorded as earned and included in fee income in the Consolidated Income Statements.

The following table presents the roll-forward of the separate account balance for variable annuities (in millions):

(1)Cash surrender value represents the amount of the contract holder’s account balances distributable at the balance sheet date less applicable surrender charges.

The following table presents the reconciliation of the separate account balance in the Consolidated Balance Sheets (in millions):

Part II |Item 8. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements | 11. Separate Account Assets and Liabilities

The following table presents aggregate fair value of assets, by major investment asset category, supporting separate accounts (in millions):

12. Market Risk Benefits

Contracts or contract features that provide protection to the contract holder from capital market risk and expose the Company to other-than-nominal capital market risk are classified as MRBs.

All long-duration insurance contracts and certain investment contracts are subject to MRB evaluation. MRBs are measured at fair value at the contract level and can be in either an asset or liability position. For contracts that contain multiple MRB features, the MRBs are valued together as a single compound MRB. Market risk benefit assets and Market risk benefit liabilities are reported separately on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

Changes in fair value are reported in Net (gains) losses on market risk benefits on the Consolidated Income Statements. However, the change in fair value related to our own non-performance risk is reported as a component of other comprehensive income in Change in non-performance risk on market risk benefits on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

A description of the items effecting the change in fair value by category is as follows:

•Changes in interest rates — movement in risk free rates (impacts both assumed future separate account returns and discounting of cash flows)

•Fund performance — separate account returns gross of fees

•Change in equity index volatility— movement in implied volatility

•Expected policyholder behavior— policyholder behavior as assumed in reserving

•Actual policyholder behavior different than expected — difference between actual behavior during the period versus assumed behavior

•Time — effect of passage of time including reduction to separate account balances from fees, the change in proximity of future cash flows, and impacts to policy features such as bonus credits

•Change in assumptions — changes in assumptions resulting from our periodic review

•Change in non-performance risk— changes in Jackson’s non-performance risk

See Note 6 - Fair Value Measurements of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for more information.

Additionally, when an annuitization occurs (for annuitization benefits) or upon extinguishment of the account balance (for withdrawal benefits), the balance related to the MRB is derecognized and the amount deducted (after derecognition of any related amount included in accumulated other comprehensive income) is used in the calculation of the liability for future policy benefits for the resulting payout annuity.

Variable annuity contracts issued by the Company offer various guaranteed minimum death, withdrawal, income and accumulation benefits. These guaranteed benefit features, as well as the reinsurance recoverable on the Company’s guaranteed minimum income benefits (“GMIB”), are classified as MRBs and measured at fair value. The Company discontinued offering the GMIB in 2009 and the guaranteed minimum accumulation benefits (“GMAB”) in 2011.

Variable annuity guaranteed benefit features classified as MRBs, which have explicit fees, are measured using the attributed fee method. Under the attributed fee method, fair value is measured as the difference between the present value of projected future liabilities and the present value of projected attributed fees. At the inception of the contract, the Company attributes to the MRB a portion of total fees expected to be assessed against the contract holder to offset the projected claims over the lifetime of the contract. The attributed fee is expressed as a percentage of total projected future fees at inception of the contract. This percentage of total projected fees is considered a fixed term of the MRB feature and is held static over the life of the contract. This percentage may not exceed 100% of the total projected contract fees as of contract inception. As the Company may issue contracts that have projected future liabilities greater than the projected future guaranteed benefit fees at issue, the Company may also attribute mortality and expense charges when performing this calculation. In subsequent valuations, both the present value of future projected liabilities and the present value of projected attributed fees are remeasured based on current market conditions and policyholder behavior assumptions.

The longevity riders issued on fixed index annuities are classified as MRBs and measured at fair value. Similar to the variable annuity guaranteed benefits features, these contracts have explicit fees and are measured using the attributed fee method. The Company attributes a percentage of total projected future fees expected to be assessed against the policyholder to offset the projected future claims over the lifetime of the contract. If the fees attributed are insufficient to offset the claims at issue, the shortfall is borrowed from the host contract rather than recognizing a loss at inception.

RILA

RILA guaranteed benefit features are classified as MRBs and measured at fair value. Unlike variable or fixed index annuities, RILA products do not have explicit fees and are measured using an option-based method. The fair value measurement represents the present value of future claims payable by the MRB feature. At inception, the value of the MRB is deducted from the value of the contract resulting in no gain or loss.

The following table presents the reconciliation of the market risk benefits balance in the Consolidated Balance Sheets (in millions):

The following table presents the roll-forward of the net MRB (assets) liabilities for variable annuities (dollars in millions):

(1) Weighted-average attained age is defined as the average age of policyholders weighted by account value.

(2) Net amount at risk (NAR) is defined as of the valuation date for each contract as the greater of Death Benefit NAR (DBNAR) and Living Benefit NAR (LBNAR), as applicable, where DBNAR is the GMDB benefit base in excess of the account value, and the LBNAR is the actuarial present value of guaranteed living benefits in excess of the account value.

At each reporting date, the Company regularly evaluates the inputs and assumptions to be used to measure the fair value of the MRB assets and MRB liabilities. In prior periods, the non-performance risk adjustment was determined based on credit spreads indicated by a blend of yields on similarly rated peer debt and yields on Company debt. Starting June 30, 2023, non-performance risk is incorporated into the calculation through the adjustment of the risk-free rate curve based only on credit spreads for debt and debt-like instruments issued by the Company or its insurance operating subsidiaries, adjusted, as necessary, to reflect the financial strength ratings of the issuing insurance subsidiaries. The change was made as a result of management’s determination that the reliability of credit spreads on debt and debt-like instruments issued by the Company as a measure of company-specific credit risk has increased due to sustained levels of market trading volume of these instruments.

The significant assumptions used in the MRB fair value calculations are discussed in Note 6 of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements. The use of models and assumptions used to determine fair value of MRBs requires a significant amount of judgement. As such, we have undertaken a comprehensive review of the significant assumptions used.

During 2023, the following notable changes were made to the inputs to the fair value estimates of the MRB calculations:

•Assumed mortality rates were increased as a result of trends in actual mortality experience, which resulted in a decrease in the MRB reserve.

•Assumed lapse rates were reduced to capture recent trends in actual lapse experience, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve.

•Assumed GMWB utilization rates were increased to capture recent trends in actual experience, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve. Assumed GMIB utilization rates were reduced to capture recent trends in actual experience, which resulted in a decrease in the MRB reserve.

•Assumed GMWB withdrawal rates were increased as a result of trends in actual experience, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve. Minor adjustments were made to the free partial withdrawal rates on policies without a GMWB with no material impact on the resulting MRB reserve.

•The non-performance risk adjustment decreased as a result of decreasing credit spreads, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve that was recorded within OCI.

•There were no changes made to assumed long-term equity volatility.

•Increases in interest rates led to higher assumed separate account returns and higher discount rates, which resulted in a decrease in the MRB reserve.

•Increases in equity markets led to higher separate account fund performance and a decrease in future projected benefits, which resulted in a decrease in the MRB reserve.

•Decreases in equity index volatility led to higher assumed separate account returns, which resulted in a decrease in the MRB reserve.

During 2022, the following notable changes were made to the inputs to the fair value estimates of the MRB calculations:

•Assumed mortality rates for certain policies were increased as a result of trends in actual mortality experience within those blocks of business, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve.

•Assumed lapse rates were reduced to capture recent trends in actual lapse experience and to reflect a strengthening of the risk margin, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve.

•An update was made in the GMWB utilization modeling framework to allow for more direct modeling of certain product features and risk margins were strengthened to reflect the credibility associated with the increased granularity of the parameterization, which resulted in a net increase in the MRB reserve. No adjustments were made to the GMIB utilization rates.

•Assumed GMWB withdrawal rates were increased as a result of trends in actual experience, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve. Minor adjustments were made to the free partial withdrawal rates on policies without a GMWB with no material impact on the resulting MRB reserve.

•The non-performance risk adjustment increased as a result of increasing credit spreads, which resulted in a decrease in the MRB reserve that was recorded within OCI.

•There were no changes made to assumed long-term equity volatility.

•Increases in interest rates led to higher assumed separate account returns and higher discount rates, which resulted in a decrease in the MRB reserve.

•Decreases in equity markets led to lower separate account fund performance and an increase in future projected benefits, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve.

•Increases in equity index volatility led to lower assumed separate account returns, which resulted in an increase in the MRB reserve.

Part II |Item 8. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements | 13. Long-Term Debt

13. Long-Term Debt

Liabilities for the Company’s debt are primarily carried at an amount equal to the principal balance net of any unamortized original issuance discount or premium. Original issuance discount or premium and any debt issue costs, if applicable, are recognized as a component of interest expense over the period the debt is expected to be outstanding.

The aggregate carrying value of long-term debt was as follows (in millions):

The following table presents the contractual maturities of the Company's long-term debt as of December 31, 2023 (in millions):

Senior Notes

On June 8, 2022, the Company issued $750 million aggregate principal amount of its senior unsecured notes, consisting of $400 million aggregate principal amount of 5.170% Senior Notes due June 8, 2027, and $350 million aggregate principal amount of 5.670% Senior Notes due June 8, 2032. The net proceeds of these notes were used, together with cash on hand, to repay the Company’s $750 million aggregate principal senior unsecured amount term loan due February 2023.

Revolving Credit Facility

On February 24, 2023, the Company replaced the 2021 Revolving Credit Facility that was due to expire in February 2024 and entered into a revolving credit facility (the "2023 Revolving Credit Facility") with a syndicate of banks and Bank of America, N.A., as Administrative Agent. The 2023 Revolving Credit Facility provides for borrowings for working capital and other general corporate purposes under aggregate commitments of $1.0 billion, with a sub-limit of $500 million available for letters of credit. The 2023 Revolving Credit Facility further provides for the ability to request, subject to customary terms and conditions, an increase in commitments thereunder by up to an additional $500 million.

The credit agreement for the 2023 Revolving Credit Facility contains financial maintenance covenants, including a minimum adjusted consolidated net worth test of no less than 70% of our adjusted consolidated net worth as of September 30, 2022 (plus (to the extent positive) or minus (to the extent negative)70% of the impact on such adjusted consolidated net worth resulting from the application of a one-time transition adjustment for the LDTI accounting change for insurance contracts, and plus 50% of the aggregate amount of any increase in adjusted consolidated net worth resulting from equity issuances by the Company and its consolidated subsidiaries after September 30, 2022), and a maximum consolidated indebtedness to total capitalization ratio test not to exceed 35%. Commitments under the 2023 Revolving Credit Facility terminate on February 24, 2028.

Part II |Item 8. Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements | 13. Long-Term Debt

Surplus Notes

Under Michigan insurance law, for statutory reporting purposes, the surplus notes are not part of the legal liabilities of the Company and are considered surplus funds. Payments of interest or principal may only be made with the prior approval of the Michigan Director of Insurance and only out of surplus earnings which the director determines to be available for such payments under Michigan insurance law.

On March 15, 1997, the Company, through its subsidiary, Jackson, issued 8.2% surplus notes in the principal amount of $250 million due March 15, 2027. These surplus notes are unsecured and subordinated to all present and future indebtedness, policy claims and other creditor claims and may not be redeemed at the option of the Company or any holder prior to maturity. Interest is payable semi-annually on March 15th and September 15th of each year. Interest expense on the notes was $20 million, $20 million, and $20 million for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

FHLB Loans

The Company received loans of $50 million from the FHLBI under its community investment program in both 2015 and 2014, which amortize on a straight-line basis over the loan term. The weighted average interest rate on these loans was 5.1% and 1.7% for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

The outstanding balance on these loans was $57 million and $62 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. See Note 10 - Other Contract Holder Funds of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for the carrying value of total collateralization of our FHLB obligations.

Line of Credit Agreement

Jackson is a party to an Uncommitted Money Market Line Credit Agreement dated April 6, 2023 among Jackson, Jackson Financial, and Société Générale. This agreement is an uncommitted short-term cash advance facility that provides an additional form of liquidity to Jackson and to Jackson Financial. The aggregate borrowing capacity under the agreement is $500 million and each cash advance request must be at least $100 thousand. The interest rate is set by the lender at the time of the borrowing and is fixed for the duration of the advance. Jackson and Jackson Financial are jointly and severally liable to repay any advance under the agreement, which must be repaid prior to the last day of the quarter in which the advance was drawn.

14. Federal Home Loan Bank Advances

The Company, through its subsidiary, Jackson, entered into an advance program with the FHLBI in which interest rates were either fixed or variable based on the FHLBI cost of funds or market rates. Advances of $250 million andnil were outstanding at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, and were recorded in other liabilities. Interest expense on such advances was $7 million, nil, and $6 million for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. See Note 10 - Other Contract Holder Funds of Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for the carrying value of total collateralization of our FHLB obligations.

15. Income Taxes

U.S. Tax Law Changes

On August 16, 2022, President Biden signed the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (“IRA”) into law. The IRA includes a new Federal corporate alternative minimum tax (“CAMT”), effective in 2023, that is based on 15% of an applicable corporation’s adjusted financial statement income (“AFSI”). A corporation is subject to the CAMT if its average pre-tax AFSI over three prior years (starting with 2020-2022) is greater than $1 billion (an “applicable corporation”). Upon becoming an applicable corporation, an entity will remain so for all future years, except under limited circumstances. The corporation’s CAMT liability is payable to the extent the CAMT liability exceeds regular corporate income tax. However, any CAMT paid would be indefinitely available as a credit carryover that could reduce future regular corporate income tax in excess of CAMT. The Company is an applicable corporation starting in 2023. That determination is based on interpretations and assumptions we have made regarding the CAMT provisions of the IRA, which may change once further regulatory guidance is issued. As of December 31, 2023, the Company has recorded an estimate of $263 million for the provision of CAMT based on the Company’s interpretation of available guidance with an offsetting increase to the deferred tax asset for the credit carryover resulting in no impact to total tax expense. The U.S. Department of the Treasury is expected to issue additional regulatory guidance in 2024 that may materially change the estimated provision of the CAMT.

Effective Tax Rate

The components of the provision for federal, state and local income taxes were as follows (in millions):