Cyngn Inc.

Notes to Condensed Consolidated Financial Statements

1. Description of Business

Cyngn Inc., together with its subsidiary (collectively, “Cyngn” or the “Company”), was incorporated in Delaware in 2013. The wholly owned subsidiary is Cyngn Singapore PTE. LTD., a Singaporean limited company organized in 2015. The Company is headquartered in Mountain View, CA.

Cyngn develops and deploys scalable, differentiated autonomous vehicle technology for industrial organizations. Our full-stack autonomous driving software, (“DriveMod”), can be integrated onto vehicles manufactured by Original Equipment Manufacturers (“OEM”) either via retrofit of existing vehicles or by integration directly into vehicle assembly. The Enterprise Autonomy Suite (“EAS”) is designed to be compatible with sensors and components from leading hardware technology providers and integrate our proprietary Autonomous Vehicle (“AV”) software to produce differentiated autonomous vehicles.

The Company has been operating autonomous vehicles in production environments and in 2023 began licensing EAS commercially. Built and tested in difficult and diverse real-world environments, DriveMod, the fleet management system and our proprietary Software Development Kit (“DriveMod Kit”) combine to create a full-stack advanced autonomy solution designed to be modular, extendable, and safe. The Company operates in one business segment.

On June 25, 2024, the Company’s stockholders voted to authorize the Company’s Board of Directors to effect a reverse stock split of the outstanding shares of common stock within a range of 1-for-5 to 1-for-100. On June 25, 2024, the Company’s Board of Directors determined to effect the reverse stock split of the common stock at a 1-for-100 ratio, which reverse split became effective in the market on July 5, 2024. On January 30, 2025, the Company’s stockholders voted to authorize the Company’s Board of Directors to effect a reverse stock split of the outstanding shares of common stock within a range of 1-for-5 to 1-for-150. On January 30, 2025, the Company’s Board of Directors determined to effect the reverse stock split of the common stock at a 1-for-150 ratio, which reverse split became effective in the market on February 18, 2025.

All share and per share amounts and exercise prices of stock options and warrants in the accompanying condensed consolidated financial statements and notes to the condensed consolidated financial statements have been retroactively adjusted to reflect the reverse stock splits for all periods presented.

Liquidity

The Company has incurred losses from operations since inception. The Company incurred net losses of approximately $13.0 million and $11.8 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Accumulated deficit amounted to approximately $202.3 million and $189.3 million as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. Net cash used in operating activities was approximately $12.8 million and $10.2 million for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

The Company’s liquidity is based on its ability to increase its operating cash flow position, obtain capital financing from equity interest investors and borrow money to fund its general operations, research and development activities, and capital expenditures. The Company’s ability to continue as a going concern is dependent on management’s ability to successfully execute its business plan, which includes increasing revenue while controlling operating costs and expenses and obtaining funds from outside sources to generate positive financing cash flows. As of June 30, 2025, the Company’s unrestricted cash balance was approximately $31.3 million and short-term investments of approximately $7.9 million. As of December 31, 2024, the Company’s cash balance was approximately $23.6 million.

Based on cash flow projections from operating, investing and financing activities and the existing balance of cash and short-term investments, management is of the opinion that the Company has sufficient funds for sustainable operations, and it will be able to meet its payment obligations from operations and related commitments for the 12 months following the date these condensed consolidated financial statements were issued.

2. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

Basis of Presentation

The accompanying condensed consolidated financial statements as of and for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (“GAAP”) and pursuant to applicable rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”). These financial statements should be read in conjunction with the audited consolidated financial statements and the notes thereto included in the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024, which was filed with the SEC on March 6, 2025.

The accompanying unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements have been prepared on a consistent basis with the audited consolidated financial statements for the fiscal years ended December 31, 2024, and 2023, and include all adjustments, consisting of only normal recurring adjustments, necessary to fairly state the information set forth herein. There have been no changes to the Company’s significant accounting policies described in its Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2024 that have had a material impact on the consolidated financial statements and the related notes.

The results reported for the interim period presented are not necessarily indicative of results that may be expected for any subsequent quarter or for the full year ending December 31, 2025. These unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements include all adjustments and accruals that are necessary for a fair statement of all interim periods reported herein.

Principles of Consolidation

The condensed consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Cyngn Inc. and its wholly owned subsidiary. Intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated upon consolidation.

Foreign Currency Translation

The functional and reporting currency for Cyngn is the U.S. dollar. Monetary assets and liabilities denominated in currencies other than U.S. dollar are translated into the U.S. dollar at period end rates, income and expenses are translated at the weighted average exchange rates for the period and equity is translated at the historical exchange rates. Foreign currency translation adjustments and transactional gains and losses are immaterial to the condensed consolidated financial statements.

Use of Estimates

The preparation of condensed consolidated financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make certain estimates and assumptions. These estimates and assumptions affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities as of the balance sheet date, as well as reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting period. The Company’s significant estimates and judgments include but are not limited to internal-use software and developed software to be sold, leased or marketed, warrants and share-based compensation. Management bases its estimates on historical experience and on various other assumptions believed to be reasonable, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

Concentration of Credit Risk

Financial instruments that potentially subject the Company to concentrations of credit risk consist of cash, which is placed with high-credit-quality financial institutions and at times exceeds federally insured limits.

Cash maintained with domestic financial institutions generally exceed the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation insurable limit. To date, the Company has not experienced any losses on its deposits of cash. Cyngn invests in U.S. Treasury securities and carries these at amortized cost and recognizes gains and losses when realized.

Concentration of Supplier Risk

The Company generally utilizes suppliers for outside development and engineering support. The Company does not believe that there is any significant supplier concentration risk as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Cash and Short-term Investments

The Company considers its bank accounts and all highly liquid investments that are both readily convertible to cash with minimal risk of changes in value due to changes in interest rates, to be cash. As of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company had $31.3 million of cash and $7.9 million in short-term investments and $23.6 million of cash, respectively.

The Company considers short-term investments to include marketable U.S. government securities that it intends to hold until maturity and redeem within one year. The Company treated its U.S. government treasury bill placements as held-to-maturity securities in accordance with the Financial Accounting Standards Board’s (“FASB”) Accounting Standards Codification Topic (“ASC”) 320, “Investments – Debt and Equity Securities”, and recorded these securities at amortized cost on the accompanying condensed consolidated balance sheet as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Accounts Receivable

Accounts receivables are recorded at the invoiced amount and do not bear interest. The Company provides for probable uncollectible amounts based upon its assessment of the current status of the individual receivables and after using reasonable collection efforts. The allowance for credit losses waszero as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024. In addition, the Company utilizes current and historical collection data as well as assesses current economic conditions in order to determine expected trade credit losses on a prospective basis. No credit losses were recorded as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Fair Value Measurements

The accounting guidance under ASC Topic 820, Fair Value Measurement, defines fair value, establishes a consistent framework for measuring fair value, and expands disclosure for each major asset and liability category measured at fair value on either a recurring or nonrecurring basis. Fair value is defined as an exit price representing the amount that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability (an exit price) in an orderly transaction between market participants. As such, fair value is considered a market-based measurement that should be determined based on assumptions that market participants would use in pricing an asset or liability.

The Company uses the following fair value hierarchy prescribed by U.S. GAAP, which prioritizes the inputs used to measure fair value as follows:

Level 1—Unadjusted quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities.

Level 2—Observable inputs other than Level 1 prices, such as quoted prices for similar assets or liabilities; quoted prices in markets that are not active; or other inputs that are observable or can be corroborated by observable market data for substantially the full term of the assets or liabilities.

Level 3—Unobservable inputs that are supported by little or no market activity and that are significant to the fair value of the assets or liabilities.

Assets and liabilities are considered to be fair valued on a recurring basis if fair value is measured regularly. However, if the fair value measurement of an instrument does not necessarily result in a change in the amount recorded on the condensed consolidated balance sheets, assets and liabilities are considered to be fair valued on a nonrecurring basis. This typically occurs when accounting guidance requires assets and liabilities to be recorded at the lower of cost or fair value, or on certain nonfinancial assets and liabilities. Nonfinancial assets and liabilities that are measured at fair value on a nonrecurring basis include certain long-lived assets, intangible assets, and share-based compensation measured at fair value upon initial recognition.

The carrying amounts of the Company’s cash and accounts receivable are reasonable estimates of their fair values due to their short-term nature. The fair values of the Company’s share-based compensation and underwriter warrants were based on observable inputs and assumptions used in Black-Scholes valuation models derived from independent external valuations.

Property and Equipment

Property and equipment is stated at cost less accumulated depreciation. Construction work in progress includes production costs and costs of materials used in the development of the Company’s autonomous driving software. Assets are held as construction work in progress until placed into service, at which date depreciation commences over the estimated useful lives of the respective assets. Depreciation is recorded on a straight-line basis over each asset’s estimated useful life. Repair and maintenance costs are expensed as incurred.

Operating Leases

The Company accounts for leases in accordance with ASC Topic 842 (“ASC 842”), Leases. All contracts are evaluated to determine whether or not they represent a lease. A lease conveys the right to control the use of an identified asset for a period of time in exchange for consideration. Leases are classified as finance or operating in accordance with the guidance in ASC 842. The Company does not hold any finance leases. The Company recognized a right-of-use asset and lease liability in the condensed consolidated balance sheets under ASC 842 on the office space lease in Mountain View, California that commenced in May 2025 and the previous office space lease in Menlo Park, California that ended in May 2025. Lease expense will be recognized on a straight-line basis over the remaining term of the lease. Operating leases are recognized on the balance sheet as right-of-use assets, and operating lease liabilities.

Costs to Develop Software

The Company incurs costs related to internally developed software. Based on the nature of the software, the Company capitalizes software costs under the following guidance.

Internal-Use Software costs

The Company determined when to capitalize its internal-use software after planning and design efforts are successfully completed. Management has implicitly authorized funding and the software is expected to be completed and used as intended. The Company determines the amount of internal software costs to be capitalized based on the amount of time spent by the developers on projects in the application stage of development. There is judgment involved in estimating time allocated to a particular project in the application stage. Costs associated with building or significantly enhancing the internally built software platform for internal use are capitalized, while costs associated with planning new developments and maintaining the internally built software platforms are expensed as incurred. Capitalized costs include certain payroll and stock compensation costs, as well as subscription server and consulting costs.

Internal-use software is classified as property and equipment and is amortized on a straight-line basis over their estimated useful life ofthree tofive years. There is judgment involved in the determination of the useful life. Amortization of the software asset will begin when the software is substantially complete and ready for its intended use. No amortization has begun for the internal use software, as the projects are still in the application development phase. Management evaluates the useful lives of these assets on a quarterly basis and tests for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances occur that could impact the recoverability of these assets. No impairment charges were associated with the Company’s internal-use software for the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024.

Costs to Develop Software to be Sold, Leased or Otherwise Marketed

The Company accounts for research costs of computer software to be sold, leased or otherwise marketed as expense until technological feasibility has been established for the product. Once technological feasibility is established, certain payroll and stock compensation, occupancy, and professional service costs that are incurred to develop functionality for the Company’s software and internally built software platforms, as well as certain upgrades and enhancements that are expected to result in enhanced functionality are capitalized. Judgment is required in determining when technological feasibility of a product is established. Management has determined that technological feasibility is established when a working model is complete. After technological feasibility is established, judgement is required to determine the amount of payroll and stock-based compensation costs to be capitalized on the remaining development efforts. These costs will continue to be capitalized until such time as when the product or enhancement is available for general release to customers.

Computer software to be sold, leased or otherwise marketed is classified as an intangible asset. Capitalized software development costs are amortized using the greater of (a) the amount computed using the ratio that current gross revenue for a product bear to total of current and anticipated future gross revenue for that product or (b) the straight-line method, beginning upon commercial release of the product, and continuing over the remaining estimated economic life of the product, not to exceed three years tofive years and recorded as cost of revenue. Amortization will begin when the product or enhancement is available for general release to customers. No amortization has begun for externally sold software, as the software enhancement is still in development. Management evaluates the useful lives of these assets on a quarterly basis and tests for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances occur that could impact the recoverability of these assets. No impairment charges were associated with the Company’s sold, leased or otherwise marketed software for the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024.

Long-Lived Assets and Finite Lived Intangibles

The Company has finite-lived intangible assets consisting of patents and trademarks. These assets are amortized on a straight-line basis over their estimated remaining economic lives. The patents and trademarks are amortized over 15 years.

The Company reviews its long-lived assets and finite-lived intangibles for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying value may not be recoverable. The events and circumstances the Company monitors and considers include significant decreases in the market price of similar assets, significant adverse changes to the extent and manner in which the asset is used, an adverse change in legal factors or business climate, an accumulation of costs that exceed the estimated cost to acquire or develop a similar asset, and continuing losses that exceed forecasted costs. The Company assesses the recoverability of these assets by comparing the carrying amount of such assets or asset group to the future undiscounted cash flow it expects the assets or asset group to generate. The Company recognizes an impairment loss if the sum of the expected long-term undiscounted cash flows that the long-lived asset is expected to generate is less than the carrying amount of the long-lived asset being evaluated. An impairment charge would then be recognized equal to the amount by which the carrying amount exceeds the fair value of the asset.

The Company also identified that the long-lived asset “Patents”, which have international and U.S. based patents, as the asset group. The Company evaluated its patents and identified expired international patent applications (“expired assets”) for the year ended December 31, 2024. The Company determined there were no further plans to put resources toward these international patent applications. The group of expired patents carrying value was set to its salvage value which is zero given no future cash flows.

For the three and six months ended June 30, 2024, the Company determined the existence of an impairment associated with the Company’s intangible asset “Patents” and accordingly recorded an impairment charge of $66,107 and $118,831, respectively (see Note 6. Intangible Assets). For the three and six months ended June 30, 2025, there wereno impairment charges.

Income Taxes

The Company accounts for income taxes using the asset and liability method, under which deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the expected future tax consequences attributable to differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax basis.

A valuation allowance is provided when it is more likely than not that some portion or all of a deferred tax asset will not be realized. Due to the Company’s lack of earnings history, the net deferred tax assets have been fully offset by a valuation allowance as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024 (see Note 11. Income Taxes).

There are no uncertain tax positions that would require recognition in the condensed consolidated financial statements. If the Company were to incur an income tax liability in the future, interest on any income tax liability would be reported as interest expense and penalties on any income tax would be reported as income taxes. Management’s conclusions regarding uncertain tax positions may be subject to review and adjustment at a later date based upon on ongoing analysis of or changes in tax laws, regulations and interpretations thereof as well as other factors.

The Company issued to its lead underwriter in the Company’s IPO warrants to purchase up to 9 shares of the Company’s common stock. In addition, the Company issued 426 common stock warrants as a part of the private placement offering. The Company accounts for warrants in accordance with ASC 480, “Distinguishing Liabilities from Equity”. The Company determined the fair value of the warrants using the Black-Scholes pricing model and treated the warrants as equity instruments in consideration of the cashless settlement provisions in the warrant agreements.

The Company also applied the guidance in ASC 340-10-S99-1, Other Assets and Deferred Costs, that states specific incremental costs directly attributable to a proposed or actual offering of equity securities may properly be deferred and charged against the gross proceeds of the offering. The Company treated the valuation of the warrants as directly attributable to the issuance of an equity contract, and accordingly, classified the warrants as additional paid-in capital.

The Company issued Series A warrants and Series B warrants in connection with securities purchase agreement on December 20, 2024. The Company accounts for warrants in accordance with ASC 480, Distinguishing Liabilities from Equity, depending on the specific terms of the warrant agreement. The estimated fair value of the Company’s warrant agreements has been determined to be Level 3 measurement, as certain inputs used to determine the fair value of these agreements are unobservable. The Company determined the fair value of the warrants using the Monte Carlo pricing model and treated the valuation as a liability in consideration of the variable number of the issuer’s equity shares in the warrant agreements. The resulting warrant liabilities are re-measured at each balance sheet date until their exercise or expiration, and any change in fair value is recognized in the Company’s consolidated statements of operations under other income (expense). After shareholder approval on January 30, 2025, the strike price and the number of equity shares are now fixed. Therefore, in accordance with ASC 815-40-35-8,Derivatives and Hedging Reclassification of Contracts, the Series A warrants were re-measured utilizing the Black Scholes model and reclassified into equity. The Series A warrants are included in equity in the condensed consolidated balance sheet as of June 30, 2025. The Series B warrants were re-measured utilizing the Black Scholes model immediately before exercise and were fully exercised in February 2025. Due to the Series A reclassification to equity and the exercising of the Series B warrants, the Company expensed the total of $0.9 million of liability issues costs to change in fair value of the warrant liability for the six months ended June 30, 2025.

Stock-based Compensation

The Company recognizes the cost of share-based awards granted to employees and directors based on the estimated grant-date fair value of the awards. Cost is recognized on a straight-line basis over the service period, which is generally the vesting period of the award. The Company recognizes stock-based compensation cost and reverses previously recognized costs for unvested awards in the period forfeitures occur, if any. The Company determines the fair value of stock options using the Black-Scholes option pricing model, which is impacted by the fair value of common stock, expected price volatility of common stock, expected term, risk-free interest rates, and expected dividend yield (see Note 9. Stock-based Compensation Expense).

Net Loss Per Share Attributable to Common Stockholders

The Company computes loss per share attributable to common shareholders by dividing net loss attributable to common shareholders by the weighted-average number of common shares outstanding. Diluted net loss per share reflects the potential dilution that could occur if securities or other contracts to issue shares were exercised into shares. In calculating diluted net loss per share, the numerator is adjusted for the change in the fair value of the shares (only if dilutive) and the denominator is increased to include the number of potentially dilutive common shares assumed to be outstanding (see Note 8. Net Loss per Share Attributable to Common Stockholders).

Research and Development Expense

Research and development expenses consists primarily of outsourced engineering services, internal engineering and development expenses, materials, labor and stock-based compensation of Company personnel involved in the development of the Company’s products and services, and allocated lease costs based on the approximate square footage area used in research and development activities. Research and development costs are expensed as incurred.

Selling, General, and Administrative Expense

Selling, general, and administrative expense consist primarily of personnel costs, facilities expenses, depreciation and amortization, travel, and advertising costs. Advertising costs are expensed as incurred in accordance with ASC 720-35, “Other Expense – Advertising Costs”, other than trade show expenses which are deferred until occurrence of the future event.* Advertising costs for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 were $136,697 and $39,900, respectively. *Advertising costs for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 were $212,434 and $130,999, respectively.

Commitments

The Company recognizes a liability with regard to loss contingencies when it believes it is probable a liability has occurred and the amount can be reasonably estimated. If some amount within a range of loss appears at the time to be a better estimate than any other amount within the range, the Company accrues that amount. When no amount within the range is a better estimate than any other amount the Company accrues the minimum amount in the range. There have been no such liabilities recorded by the Company as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Segment Reporting

The Company operates as one operating segment. The Company’s chief operating decision maker is the executive management team, its Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer. The executive management team manages operations and business asone operating segment for the purposes of allocating resources, making operating decisions and evaluating financial performance.

The one operating segment generates revenues from EAS subscriptions with relative add-on offerings such as hardware revenue and other revenue (i.e., deployment/set up costs) and fixed-price NRE contracts related to customer-specific configuration that consist of several independent phases and include design, data gathering, hardware installation on an industrial vehicle, customer-specific configuration of the DriveMod software, and demonstrations.

For the Company’sone segment, the executive management team use revenue and net loss to allocate resources, both reported on the condensed Consolidated Statement of Operations as Revenue and Net loss. The executive management team also uses revenue and net loss, along with non-financial inputs and qualitative information, to evaluate the Company’s performance, establish compensation, monitor budget versus actual results, and decide the level of investment in various operating activities and other capital allocation activities. The measure of segment assets is reported on the condensed Consolidated Balance Sheet as Total assets.

Revenue Recognition

Under ASC 606, “Revenue from Contracts with Customers”, the Company determines revenue recognition through the following steps:

Nature of Products and Services and Revenue Recognition from (a) subscription of our Enterprise Autonomy Service (“EAS”), (b) nonrecurring engineering services under fixed fee arrangements (“NRE services”), (c) product sales of hardware to customers and distributors, and (d) other are recognized as follows:

Subscription

Subscription revenue primarily consists of the sale of SaaS offerings. Through the SaaS offerings and related support services, customers are granted access to a hosted software application over the contract period, generally ranging from one year to five years, without a contractual right to possession of the software.

SaaS and related support services: Revenues from the sale of hosted software applications and related support services are generally recognized ratably over the contractual period that the services are delivered, beginning on the date the service is made available to customers. Revenue is recognized ratably because the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits of the services throughout the contract period. Contracts are generally fixed price the Company’s standard payment terms vary by customer and the products or services offered.

Revenue is measured based on considerations specified in a contract with a customer. Customer contracts for software subscriptions are generally represented by a sales contract or purchase order with contract durations typically ranging from three to five years.

For the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, subscription revenue was $17,986 and $3,624, respectively, and for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $29,846 and $6,351, respectively.

Non-Recurring Engineering (“NRE”)

The Company enters into Non-Recurring Engineering (“NRE”) contracts that are principally comprised of engineering services related to customer-specific configuration of the DriveMod. Generally, with respect to these NRE contracts, i) the determination of the contract price is based on labor and hardware costs estimated to achieve the required milestones specified in the contract; ii) payment under these arrangements are comprised of upfront payments due upon execution of the agreements as well as payments due upon the achievement of milestones specified in each arrangement; and iii) contain mutual termination clauses without penalty. The Company recognizes revenue from NRE contracts that are fully funded by customers and the sale of its products when promised goods or engineering services are transferred to customers. Each of the Company’s NRE arrangements are comprised of multi-phase deliverables recognized at a point in time upon completion and acceptance from the customer of each phase of the arrangement. The Company recognizes revenue in an amount that reflects the consideration to which the Company expects to be entitled in exchange for those goods or services.

For the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, NRE revenue was $0, and for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $0.

Hardware

Hardware Revenue generally consists of sale or lease of industrial vehicles modified with a proprietary autonomous hardware kit, known as a DriveMod Kit. Revenue is recognized at a point in time when title and risks and rewards of ownership have transferred to the customer. For customers that lease the hardware, revenue is recognized over time as the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefits provided by the hardware. Customer contracts for product sales of hardware are generally represented by a sales contract or purchase order.

For the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, hardware revenue was $10,578 and $5,042, respectively, and for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $20,516 and $7,828, respectively.

Royalty

Royalty revenue primarily consists of the licensing of the proprietary software that operates and is integrated into the DriveMod Kit. In these arrangements, the software is not distinct from the hardware, as it does not have standalone functionality without the underlying hardware and is highly interrelated with the operation of the hardware. As such, the Company accounts for the software and hardware as a single combined performance obligation and royalty revenue is recognized in the period in which the underlying products, DriveMod Kits, are sold.

For the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, royalty revenue was $0, and for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $25,200 and $0, respectively.

Other

Other revenues generally consist of fees associated with the sale of distinct professional services, either in support of deploying hardware and subscription support. Professional service offerings are typically sold as part of an arrangement for products or services included within subscription revenue. Professional services associated with subscription revenue generally relate to standard implementation, configuration, installation or training services applied to SaaS deployment models. Professional service revenue is recognized over time as the services are performed, as the customer simultaneously receives and consumes the benefit of these services. Professional service contracts are offered at either a fixed or a variable price and may be invoiced in advance or arrears of the services being provided.

The Company’s standard payment terms vary by customer and the products or services offered. Contract terms for other revenue arrangements are generally short-term, with stated contract terms that are less than one year.

The Company collects and remits taxes assessed by different governmental authorities that are both imposed on and concurrent with a revenue-producing transaction between the Company and the Company’s customers. These taxes may include, but are not limited to, sales, use, value-added, and some excise taxes. The Company reports the collection of these taxes on a net basis (excluded from revenues). Shipping and handling fees billed to customers are included in net sales, while costs of shipping and handling are included in cost of revenue.

For the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, other revenue was $5,162 and $0, respectively, and for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $5,317 and $0, respectively.

Arrangements with Multiple Performance Obligations

When a contract involves multiple performance obligations, the Company accounts for individual products and services separately if the customer can benefit from the product or service on its own or with other resources that are readily available to the customer and the product or service is separately identifiable from other promises in the arrangement. The consideration is allocated between separate performance obligations in proportion to their estimated stand-alone selling price. The transactions to which the Company had to estimate stand-alone selling prices and allocate the arrangement consideration to multiple performance obligations were immaterial.

The Company’s contracts may include standard warranty or service level provisions that state promised goods and services will perform and operate in all material respects as defined in the respective agreements. The Company has determined that these represent assurance-type warranties, and the Company has not incurred any material costs as a result of such commitments.

Cost to Obtain and Fulfill a Contract.

The Company incurs certain costs to obtain contracts, principally third-party fulfillment fees, which the Company capitalizes when the liability has been incurred if they are (i) incremental costs of obtaining a contract, (ii) expected to be recovered and (iii) have an expected amortization period that is greater than one year (as the Company has elected the practical expedient to expense any costs to obtain a contract when the liability is incurred if the amortization period of such costs would be one year or less).

Material Rights

The Company’s contracts with customers may include renewal or other options at stated prices. Determining whether these options provide the customer with a material right and therefore need to be accounted for as separate performance obligations requires judgment. The price of each option must be assessed to determine whether it is reflective of the stand-alone selling price or is reflective of a discount that the customer only received as a result of its prior purchase (a material right).

Other Policies, Judgments and Practical Expedients

Contract balances. Contract assets and liabilities represent the differences in the timing of revenue recognition from the receipt of cash from the Company’s customers and billings. Contract assets reflect revenue recognized and performance obligations satisfied in advance of customer billing. Contract liabilities relate to payments received in advance of the satisfaction of performance under the contract. Receivable represents right to consideration that is unconditional. Such rights are considered unconditional if only the passage of time is required before payment of that consideration is due.

Remaining performance obligations. Revenue allocated to remaining performance obligations represents the transaction price allocated to the performance obligations that are unsatisfied, or partially unsatisfied. It includes unearned revenue and amounts that will be invoiced and recognized as revenue in future periods and does not include contracts where the customer is not committed. The customer is not considered committed where they are able to terminate for convenience without payment of a substantive penalty under the contract. The Company has elected the optional exemption, which allows for the exclusion of the amounts for remaining performance obligations that are part of contracts with an original expected duration of one year or less.

Significant financing component. In certain arrangements, the Company receives payment from a customer either before or after the performance obligation has been satisfied. The Company’s contracts with customer prepayment terms do not include a significant financing component because the primary purpose is not to receive or provide financing from or to the customers.

Contract modifications. The Company may modify contracts to offer customers additional products or services. Each of the additional products and services are generally considered distinct from those products or services transferred to the customer before the modification. The Company evaluates whether the contract price for the additional products and services reflects the stand-alone selling price as adjusted for facts and circumstances applicable to that contract. In these cases, the Company accounts for the additional products or services as a separate contract. In other cases where the pricing in the modification does not reflect the stand-alone selling price as adjusted for facts and circumstances applicable to that contract, the Company accounts on a prospective basis where the remaining goods and services are distinct from the original items and on a cumulative catch-up basis when the remaining goods and services are not distinct from the original items.

Principal vs. Agent Considerations

Judgment is required in determining whether we are the principal or agent in transactions with dealers, OEMs and end-users. We evaluate the presentation of revenue on a gross or net basis based on whether we control the service provided to the end-user and are the principal (i.e., “gross”), or we arrange for other parties to provide the service to the end-user and are an agent (i.e., “net”). This determination also impacts the presentation of incentives provided to dealers and OEMs and discounts and promotions offered to end-users to the extent they are not customers.

In dealer transactions where our role is to provide the hardware to the dealer, we do not control and are not primarily responsible for the good or service provided by the dealer to end-users. In these transactions, hardware revenue is recorded on a net basis.

In dealer and OEM transactions where our role is to provide the software subscription to the end-user, we are primarily responsible for the services and present the respective subscription revenue on a gross basis. Payments to dealers in exchange for their services are recorded as cost of revenue.

Judgments and estimates. Accounting for contracts recognized over time involves the use of various techniques to estimate total contract revenue and costs. Due to uncertainties inherent in the estimation process, it is possible that estimates of costs to complete a performance obligation will be revised in the near term. The Company reviews and updates its contract-related estimates regularly, and records adjustments as needed. For those performance obligations for which revenue is recognized using a cost-to-cost input method and residual method, changes in total estimated costs, and related progress towards complete satisfaction of the performance obligation, are recognized on a cumulative catch-up basis in the period in which the revisions to the estimates are made.

Concentration of Credit Risk

The following table sets forth the percentages of total revenue for customers that represents 10% or more of the respective amounts for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

The following table sets forth the percentages of total revenue for customers that represents 10% or more of the respective amounts for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

There was $102,189 from these customers in accounts receivable at June 30, 2025 and $269,500 from these customers in accounts receivable at December 31, 2024.

Cost of Revenue

Cost of revenue consists primarily of direct labor and related fringe benefits for internal engineering resources, and deployment related travel costs incurred for the completion of the contracts and hardware costs.

3. Revenue and Contracts with Customers

Contract Balances

Timing differences between revenue recognized, billings, and customer payments result in contract assets and liabilities. Contract assets represent revenue recognized in excess of customer billings. Contract liabilities represent payments received from customers in advance of satisfying performance obligations. The Company had contract assets of $2,394 and contract liabilities of $4,420 as of June 30, 2025. The Company had contract assets of $3,007 and contract liabilities of $3,333 as of December 31, 2024.

Deferred Contract Costs

The Company defers costs associated with fulfilling its contracts if those costs meet all of the following criteria: (i) the costs relate directly to a contract, (ii) the costs generate or enhance resources of the Company that will be used in satisfying performance obligations in the future, and (iii) the costs are expected to be recovered. Costs are recognized over the life of the contract or when the respective milestone has been completed as cost of revenue. The Company had deferred contract costs totaling $262,124 and $120,793 as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. Deferred contract costs are included in prepaid and other current assets in the condensed consolidated balance sheets.

4. Balance Sheet Components

Financial Instruments

The Company’s short-term investments consisted of U.S. government treasury bills, which are accounted for as held-to-maturity (“HTM”) securities. HTM securities are carried at amortized cost and, as a result, are not remeasured to fair value on a recurring basis. As of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the amortized cost of the Company’s U.S. government treasury bills totaled $7.9 million and $0, respectively, which approximated its fair value based on Level 1 inputs. All of the Company’s short-term investments will mature within one year of June 30, 2025. The Company does not expect a credit loss for its short-term investments.

Prepaid expenses and other current assets

Prepaid expenses and other current assets are comprised of the following:

Property and Equipment, Net

Property and equipment is comprised of the following:

Depreciation expense for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $51,856 and $50,052, respectively, and for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $107,678 and $96,886, respectively.

Accounts Payable

Accounts payable includes independent director fees payable of $42,500 and $28,333 as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

Accrued Expenses and Other Current Liabilities

Accrued expenses and other current liabilities are comprised of the following:

5. Operating Leases

The Company leases its office space in Mountain View, California, under an operating lease agreement dated March 25, 2025, originally signed for a term of six and one half years that commenced in May 2025. Monthly payments are approximately $110,500. The lease includes common area maintenance costs that are paid separately from rent based on actual costs incurred. The Company’s previous lease in Menlo Park, California ended in May 2025.

The Company’s future lease payments under the non-cancellable lease as of June 30, 2025, which are presented as lease liabilities on the Company’s condensed consolidated balance sheet, are as follows:

Lease expense was $297,743 and $178,354 for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively, and $455,040 and $359,965 for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. The amortization of the operating lease right-of-use assets, which is included in the lease expense, totaled $298,007 and $172,631 for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively, and $476,124 and $343,779 for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively. The weighted average discount rate is based on the incremental borrowing rate that is utilized to present value the remaining lease payments over the lease term.

6. Intangible Assets, Net

The gross carrying amount and accumulated amortization of separately identifiable intangible assets are as follows:

Amortization expense for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $8,597 and $5,914, respectively, and for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $15,927 and $11,827, respectively. There wasno amortization expense for the developed software for the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024.

ASC 360,Property, Plant, and Equipment, defines a multi-step process to test long-lived assets, including intangible assets, for recoverability that if failed would indicate impairment. First, the Company must consider whether indicators of impairment of long-lived assets are present. The Company determined the Triggering Events in conjunction with preparation of its financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2024 provided such indication.

Next, the Company must review the long-lived assets to define asset group(s) that would reflect the lowest level of assets to which discrete cash flows are identifiable, and test these asset groups for impairment.

In performing this review, the Company identified that the long-lived asset “Patents”, which have international and U.S. based patents, as the asset group. The Company evaluated its patents and identified expired international patent applications (“expired assets”) for the year ended December 31, 2024. The Company determined there were no further plans to put resources toward these international patent applications. The group of expired patents carrying value was set to its salvage value which is zero given no future cash flows.

For the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, the Company recorded a $0 and $66,107, respectively, and for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, recorded a $0 and $118,831, respectively, impairment charge under gain (loss) on disposal assets, which is included in other income (expense) on its condensed consolidated statement of operations, to adjust the expiring assets salvage value of zero.

It was determined for all remaining long-lived assets that there were no triggering events, and therefore, no further impairment charges to long-lived assets were necessary as of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Estimated amortization expense for all intangible assets subject to amortization in future years is expected to be:

7. Capital Structure

Common Stock

As of June 30, 2025, the Company is authorized to issue 400,000,000 shares of common stock with a par value of $0.00001 per share. As of December 31, 2024, the Company was authorized to issue 200,000,000 shares of common stock with a par value of $0.00001 per share. As of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company had 7,039,266 and 199,110 shares of common stock issued and outstanding, respectively. Holders of common stock have no preemptive, conversion or subscription rights and there are no redemption or sinking fund provisions applicable to the common stock. The rights, preferences and privileges of the holders of common stock are subject to, and may be adversely affected by, the rights of the holders of shares of any series of preferred stock that the Company may designate in the future

Preferred Stock

In October 2021, the Company amended its Certificate of Incorporation and revised the number of preferred stock shares authorized for issuance to 10,000,000 shares at a par value of $0.00001. As of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, there wereno shares of preferred stock issued and outstanding.

Reverse Stock Split

On June 25, 2024, the Company’s stockholders voted to authorize the Company’s Board of Directors to effect a reverse stock split of the outstanding shares of common stock within a range of 1-for-5 to 1-for-100. On June 25, 2024, the Company’s Board of Directors determined to effect the reverse stock split of the common stock at a 1-for-100 ratio, which reverse split became effective in the market on July 5, 2024.

On January 30, 2025, the Company’s stockholders voted to authorize the Company’s Board of Directors to effect a reverse stock split of the outstanding shares of common stock within a range of 1-for-5 to 1-for-150. On January 30, 2025, the Company’s Board of Directors determined to effect the reverse stock split of the common stock at a 1-for-150 ratio, which reverse split became effective in the market on February 18, 2025.

The Company’s primary reason for effecting the reverse stock splits was to increase the per share price of our common stock to meet Nasdaq’s minimum bid price requirement for continued listing on Nasdaq.

Common Stock Offerings

On June 27, 2025, the Company entered into a securities purchase agreement pursuant to which the Company agreed to sell and issue, in a registered direct offering,313,564 shares of its common stock, par value $0.00001 per share at a purchase price of $7.50 per share and 1,979,769 pre-funded warrants to purchase shares of Common Stock, at a purchase price of $ of $7.49999 per Pre-Funded Warrant. The Pre-Funded Warrants are classified as a component of permanent stockholders’ equity within additional paid-in capital and were recorded at the issuance date concluding the purchase price approximated the fair value. The offering closed on June 30, 2025. The Company received net proceeds of approximately $14.7 million from the offering, after deducting the estimated offering expenses payable by the Company, including the placement agent fees.

On June 26, 2025, the Company entered into a securities purchase agreement pursuant to which the Company agreed to sell and issue, in a registered direct offering,192,496 shares of its common stock, par value $0.00001 per share at a purchase price of $5.01 per share and 2,801,516 pre-funded warrants to purchase shares of Common Stock, at a purchase price of $ of $5.00999 per pre-funded warrant. The Pre-Funded Warrants are classified as a component of permanent stockholders’ equity within additional paid-in capital and were recorded at the issuance date concluding the purchase price approximated the fair value. The offering closed on June 27, 2025. The Company received net proceeds of approximately $12.7 million from the offering, after deducting the estimated offering expenses payable by the Company, including the placement agent fees.

On December 30, 2024, the Company entered into a securities purchase agreement pursuant to which the Company agreed to sell and issue, in a registered direct offering,44,333 shares of its common stock, par value $0.00001 per share at a purchase price of $90 per share and 55,667 pre-funded warrants to purchase shares of Common Stock, at a purchase price of $89.985 per Pre-Funded Warrant. The Pre-Funded Warrants are classified as a component of permanent stockholders’ equity within additional paid-in capital and were recorded at the issuance date concluding the purchase price approximated the fair value. The offering closed on December 31, 2024. The Company received net proceeds of approximately $8.1 million from the Offering, after deducting the estimated offering expenses payable by the Company, including the placement agent fees.

On December 20, 2024, the Company entered into a securities purchase agreement for the sale and issuance of (i)20,507 units at a public offering price per Unit of $241.50 with each Unit consisting ofone share of common stock, par value $0.00001 per share, one Series A warrant to purchaseone share of Common Stock at an exercise price of $301.875 per share andone Series B warrant to purchaseone share of Common Stock at an exercise price of $301.875 and (ii)62,309 pre-funded units at a public offering price of $241.485 per Pre-Funded Unit, with each Pre-Funded Unit consisting ofone pre-funded warrant exercisable forone share of Common Stock at an exercise price of $0.015 per share, one Series A Warrant andone Series B Warrant. The Pre-Funded Warrants are classified as a component of permanent stockholders’ equity within additional paid-in capital and were recorded at the issuance date concluding the purchase price approximated the fair value. The offering closed on December 23, 2024. The net proceeds to the Company from the Offering were approximately $18.2 million, after deducting placement agent’s fees and the payment of other estimated offering expenses associated with the offering that are payable by the Company.

On April 23, 2024, the Company entered into an underwritten Agreement with Aegis Capital Corp. (“Aegis”), pursuant to which Aegis acted as the Company’s underwriter on a firm commitment basis in connection with the sale by the Company of an aggregate of 3,333 shares of common stock in a public offering, which included: (i)1,320 shares of common stock, and (ii) pre-funded warrants to purchase 2,013 shares of common stock. The Pre-Funded Warrants had a nominal exercise price of $0.15. Each share of common stock was sold at an offering price of $1,500, and each Pre-Funded Warrant was sold at an offering price of $1,499.85. The Pre-Funded Warrants are classified as a component of permanent stockholders’ equity within additional paid-in capital and were recorded at the issuance date concluding the purchase price approximated the fair value. The offering closed on April 25, 2024. On May 3, 2024, the Company closed on the sale of an additional 136 shares of common stock, upon exercise by the underwriter of the over-allotment option. The Company received net proceeds of approximately $4.6 million, after deducting the estimated offering expenses payable by the Company, including the placement agent fees.

At the Market Equity Financing

On May 31, 2023, the Company entered into an ATM Sales Agreement with Virtu Americas LLC (the “ATM Sales Agreement”), under which the Company may, from time to time, sell shares of the Company’s common stock at market prices by methods deemed to be an “at-the-market offering” as defined in Rule 415 promulgated under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended. The ATM Sales Agreement and related prospectus is limited to sales of up to an aggregate maximum $8.8 million of shares of the Company’s common stock. The Company pays Virtu Americas LLC up to 3.0% of the gross proceeds as a commission. As of December 31, 2024, a total of 4,524 shares of common stock were sold through Virtu Americas LLC under the ATM Sales Agreement. As of December 31, 2024, the Company has received net proceeds of $8,597,957 after payment of commission fees of $175,468 and other related expenses of $60,465. No shares of common stock were sold through Virtu Americas LLC under the ATM Sales Agreement in the current reporting period.

Private Placement Offering

On November 12, 2024, the Company entered into a Securities Purchase Agreement (“SPA”) with certain investors pursuant to which we sold, in a private placement, senior notes with an aggregate principal amount of $4,375,000 (the “Notes”), and received proceeds before expenses of $3,500,000. The Notes matured on February 12, 2025, with 20% interest rate. As consideration for entering into the SPA, we issued a total of 2,701 shares of common stock of the Company to the Purchasers on November 13, 2024. The common stock and the Notes were recorded at the relative fair values in accordance with ASC 470-20-25-2. The placement agent fee and other offering expenses were allocated based on the aforementioned fair values as a reduction to the carrying amount of the debt and a reduction of the equity in accordance with ASC 505-10. The amortization of the debt discount and issuance costs was recorded in interest income (expense) on the condensed consolidated statement of operations. As of December 31, 2024, the Notes were paid in full.

The following warrants were outstanding as of June 30, 2025, all of which contain standard anti-dilution protections in the event of subsequent rights offerings, stock splits, stock dividends or other extraordinary dividends, or other similar changes in the Company’s common stock or capital structure, and none of which have any participating rights for any losses. All Series B warrants, which were issued as a part of the December 20, 2024 public offering, were fully exercised as of February 11, 2025 utilizing the cashless exercise provision in the warrant agreement.

The following warrants were outstanding as of December 31, 2024, all of which contain standard anti-dilution protections in the event of subsequent rights offerings, stock splits, stock dividends or other extraordinary dividends, or other similar changes in the Company’s common stock or capital structure, and none of which have any participating rights for any losses:

The Company accounts for warrants in accordance with ASC 480,Distinguishing Liabilities from Equity, depending on the specific terms of the warrant agreement. The Company determined the fair value of the Initial Public Offering and Private Placement warrants using the Black-Scholes pricing model and treated the valuation as equity instruments in consideration of the cashless settlement provisions in the warrant agreements. The warrants are not marked-to-market each reporting period, and thus there is no impact to earnings. Any future exercises of the warrants will be recorded as cash received and recorded in cash, with a corresponding increase to common stock and additional paid-in capital in stockholders’ equity.

The Company used the following assumptions for June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024:

Under ASC 815-40-35-8,Derivatives and Hedging Reclassification of Contracts, shareholder approval on January 30, 2025, initiated the price reset period, resulting in a fixed exercise price for the warrants. As such, the warrants were reclassified to equity and remeasured utilizing the Black Scholes model with the following assumptions:

The fair value of the Series B warrants were re-measured prior to exercise using the Black-Scholes model, now that the exercise price has been fixed, based on the following assumptions:

The Company accounts for warrants in accordance with ASC 480,Distinguishing Liabilities from Equity, depending on the specific terms of the warrant agreement. In accordance with ASC 470-20,Debt, the Company allocated the proceeds of the deal based on the relative fair values for the Series A and Series B warrants. The Company determined the fair value of the warrants using the Monte Carlo pricing model and treated the valuation as a liability in consideration of the variable number of the issuer’s equity shares in the warrant agreements for the year-ended December 31, 2024.

The Company used the following assumptions:

8. Net Loss Per Share Attributable to Common Stockholders

In accordance with ASC 260, basic and diluted earnings per shares amounts, and weighted-average shares outstanding have been restated for all periods presented to reflect the effect of the stock dividends and reverse stock split. The following table summarizes the computation of basic and diluted loss per share:

Basic loss per share is based upon the weighted average number of shares of common stock outstanding during the period. Diluted loss per share would include the effect of unvested restricted stock awards and the convertible preferred stock; however, such items were not considered in the calculation of the diluted weighted average common shares outstanding since they would be anti-dilutive.

9. Stock-based Compensation Expense

Stock-Based Compensation

The Company uses stock-based compensation, including restricted stock units, to provide long-term performance incentives for its employees and board directors. The Company measures employee and director stock-based compensation awards based on the award’s estimated fair value on the date of grant. Forfeitures are recognized as they occur. Expense associated with these awards is recognized using the straight-line attribution method over the requisite service period for stock options, restricted stock units (“RSUs”) and restricted stock and is reported in our condensed consolidated statements of stockholders’ equity.

The fair value of the Company’s stock options is estimated using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The resulting fair value is recognized on a straight-line basis over the period during which an employee is required to provide service in exchange for the award. The Company has elected to recognize forfeitures as they occur. Stock options generally vest over four years and have a contractual term often years.

Determining the grant date fair value of options requires management to make assumptions and judgments. These estimates involve inherent uncertainties and if different assumptions had been used, stock-based compensation expense could have been materially different from the amounts recorded.

The assumptions and estimates for valuing stock options are as follows:

Equity Incentive Plans

In February 2013, the Company’s Board of Directors adopted the 2013 Equity Incentive Plan (“2013 Plan”). The 2013 Plan authorizes the award of stock options, stock appreciation rights, restricted stock awards, stock appreciation rights, RSUs, performance awards, and other stock or cash awards.

In October 2021, the Company’s Board of Directors adopted the Cyngn Inc. 2021 Equity Incentive Plan (the “2021 Plan”). The 2021 Plan replaces the 2013 Plan. However, awards outstanding under the 2013 Plan will continue to be governed by their existing terms.

In November 2023, the shareholders of the Company approved an amendment to the Company’s 2021 Equity Incentive Plan to increase the number of shares authorized for issuance by 334 shares of common stock. In June 2024, the shareholders of the Company approved an amendment to allow an annual increase to the 2021 Plan equal to the least of (i)15% of the outstanding common stock on a fully diluted basis as of the end of the Company’s immediately preceding fiscal year, or (ii) such lesser amount as determined by the Board.

As of June 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, approximately 55,646 and 614 shares of common stock were reserved and available for issuance under the 2021 Plan, respectively. Options issued under the Plans generally vest based on continuous service provided by the option holder over a four-year period. Compensation expense related to these options is recognized on a straight-line basis over the four-year period based upon the fair value at the grant date.

The following table summarizes information about the Company’s stock options outstanding as well as stock options vested and exercisable as of June 30, 2025, and activity during the three month period then ended:

The following table summarizes information about the Company’s stock options outstanding as well as stock options vested and exercisable as of June 30, 2025, and activity during the six month period then ended:

The following table summarizes information about the Company’s RSUs as of June 30, 2025, and activity during the three months then ended:

The following table summarizes information about the Company’s RSUs as of June 30, 2025, and activity during the six months then ended:

The fair value of a stock option is estimated using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model that takes into account as of the grant date the exercise price and expected life of the option, the current price of the underlying stock and its expected volatility, expected dividends on the stock, and the risk-free interest rate for the expected term of the option. The Company has used the simplified method in calculating the expected term of all option grants based on the vesting period and contractual term. Compensation costs related to share-based payment transactions are recognized in the financial statements upon satisfaction of the requisite service or vesting requirements.

The weighted average per share grant-date fair value of options granted during the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024 was $0.00 and $1,470, respectively.

The following weighted average assumptions were used in estimating the grant date fair values on June 30, 2025 and 2024:

The Company recorded stock-based compensation expense from stock options and RSUs of approximately $456,887 and $615,651, for the three months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively, and $993,131 and $1,269,675, for the six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

As of June 30, 2025, total stock-based compensation cost related to outstanding unvested stock options that are expected to vest was $2.2 million. This unrecognized stock-based compensation cost is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of approximately 1.8 years. Income tax benefits recognized from stock-based compensation expense recognized for the year ended June 30, 2025 were immaterial due to cumulative losses and valuation allowances.

10. Retirement Savings Plan

Effective November 17, 2017, the Company established the Cyngn Inc. 401(k) Plan for the exclusive benefit of all eligible employees and their beneficiaries with the intention to provide a measure of retirement security for the future. This plan is subject to the provisions of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) and qualifies under Section 401(k) of the Internal Revenue Code. The Company did not offer and has not provided a company match for its 401(k) Plan.

11. Income Taxes

For the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024, the Company recorded income tax expense of $0. The effective tax rate is 0% for the three and six months ended June 30, 2025 and 2024.

For financial reporting purposes, the Company’s effective tax rate used for the interim periods is based on the estimated full-year income tax rate. For the three and six months ended June 30, 2025, the Company’s effective tax rate differs from the statutory rate, primarily due to a valuation allowance recorded against the net deferred tax asset balance. Currently, the Company is not under examination by any taxing authority.

12. Commitments and Contingencies

Legal Proceedings

The Company is subject to legal and regulatory actions that arise from time to time. The assessment as to whether a loss is probable or reasonably possible, and as to whether such loss or a range of such loss is estimable, often involves significant judgment about future events, and the outcome of litigation is inherently uncertain.

Under the terms of a settlement agreement with a former placement agent, the Company may be obligated to pay to a $2.3 million cash fee and issue 370,114 warrants to purchase shares of the Company’s common stock in connection with the June 27 Offering and the June 26 Offering. However, the Company has informed the former placement agent that it does not believe there is a basis for these obligations. The Company has not received a response from the former placement agent and a resolution has not been reached as of the date of this filing. The Company is currently contesting the matter and has not accrued any liability related to it. While an unfavorable outcome is reasonably possible, the Company is unable to estimate the possible loss or range of loss at this time.

There is no other material pending or threatened litigation against the Company that remains outstanding as of June 30, 2025. To avoid litigation and minimize costs, the Company agreed in principle to a one-time payment of $500,000 to settle a contract dispute, of which payment was included in accrued expenses as of December 31, 2024 and paid on March 18, 2025.

13. Risks and Uncertainties

The Company’s business operations, operating results, and financial condition are vulnerable to certain risks and uncertainties including:

The Company is unable to predict and quantify at this time the extent of the related potential adverse effects but continuously monitors these risks and uncertainties on its future operations and financial performance.

14. Subsequent Events

The Company performed a review of events subsequent to the balance sheet date through the date the condensed consolidated financial statements were issued and determined that there were no such events requiring recognition or disclosure in the condensed consolidated financial statements.