WESTERN ALLIANCE BANCORPORATION

1. SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT ACCOUNTING POLICIES

Nature of operations

WAL is a bank holding company headquartered in Phoenix, Arizona, incorporated under the laws of the state of Delaware. WAL provides a full spectrum of customized loan, deposit, and treasury management capabilities, including funds transfer and other digital payment offerings through its wholly-owned banking subsidiary, WAB, together with its banking divisions: ABA, BON, FIB, Bridge, and TPB.

The Company also serves business customers through a national platform of specialized financial services, including mortgage banking services through AmeriHome and digital payment services for the class action legal industry. In addition, the Company has the following non-bank subsidiaries: CSI, a captive insurance company formed and licensed under the laws of the state of Arizona and established as part of the Company's overall enterprise risk management strategy, and WATC, which provides corporate trust services and levered loan administration solutions.

Basis of presentation

The accompanying Unaudited Consolidated Financial Statements as of March 31, 2025 and for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024 have been prepared in accordance with GAAP for interim financial information and Article 10 of Regulation S-X and, therefore, do not include all of the information and footnotes required by GAAP for complete financial statements. Accordingly, these statements should be read in conjunction with the Company's audited Consolidated Financial Statements included in the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024. The accounts of the Company and its consolidated subsidiaries are included in the Consolidated Financial Statements.

The information furnished in these interim statements reflects all adjustments that are, in the opinion of management, necessary for a fair statement of the results for each respective period presented. Such adjustments are of a normal, recurring nature. The results of operations in the interim statements are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for any other quarter or for the full year.

Recent accounting pronouncements

Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses

In November 2024, the FASB issued guidance within ASU 2024-03, Income Statement—Reporting Comprehensive Income—Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Topic 220). The amendments in this update require disclosure, in the notes to financial statements, of specified information about certain costs and expenses. Entities will be required to disclose the amounts of employee compensation, depreciation, and intangible asset amortization included in each relevant expense caption. The update also requires entities to include certain amounts that are already required to be disclosed under current GAAP in the same disclosure as the other disaggregation requirements, disclose a qualitative description of the amounts remaining in relevant expense captions that are not separately disaggregated quantitatively, and disclose the total amount of selling expenses and, in annual reporting periods, an entity’s definition of selling expenses.

The amendments in this update are effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2026 and interim periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2027 and may be applied on a prospective or retrospective basis. The Company is currently evaluating the impact these amendments will have on its Consolidated Financial Statements.

Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures

In December 2023, the FASB issued guidance within ASU 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740). The amendments in this update are intended to increase visibility into various income tax components that affect the reconciliation of the effective tax rate to the statutory rate, as well as the qualitative and quantitative aspects of those components. Public business entities will be required to disclose on an annual basis, specific categories in the rate reconciliation and provide additional information for reconciling items that meet or exceed a five percent threshold (computed by multiplying pretax income by the applicable statutory income tax rate) and include disclosure of state and local jurisdictions that make up the majority of the state and local income tax category in the rate reconciliation. Additional disclosure items include disaggregation of income taxes paid to and income tax expense from federal, state, and foreign jurisdictions as well as disaggregation of income taxes paid to individual jurisdictions in which income taxes paid are equal to or greater than five percent of total income taxes paid.

The amendments in this update are effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024 and interim periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2025 and may be applied on a prospective or retrospective basis. As the amendments in this update relate entirely to enhanced disclosure requirements, adoption of this guidance will not have an impact on the Company's financial position or results of operations. Upon adoption, the Company expects to provide these enhanced income tax disclosures.

Recently adopted accounting guidance

Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures

In November 2023, the FASB issued guidance within ASU 2023-07, Segment Reporting (Topic 280). The amendments in this update are intended to improve reportable segment disclosure requirements, primarily through enhanced disclosures related to significant segment expenses. The amendments did not change how an entity identifies its operating segments, aggregates those operating segments, or applies the quantitative thresholds to determine its reportable segments, and all existing segment disclosure requirements in ASC 280 and other Codification topics remain unchanged. The amendments in this update are incremental and require public entities that report segment information to disclose, on an annual and interim basis, significant segment expenses that are regularly provided to the chief operating decision maker and included within each reported measure of segment profit or loss as well as other segment items. Annual disclosure of the title and position of the chief operating decision maker and how the reported measures of segment profit or loss are used to assess performance and allocation of resources is also required.

The Company adopted this guidance beginning with the annual period ending December 31, 2024 and applied these updates on a retrospective basis. Upon adoption, the Company provided additional expense detail within its segment disclosures and there was no impact on the Company's financial position or results of operations.

Accounting for and Disclosure of Crypto Assets

In December 2023, the FASB issued guidance within ASU 2023-08, Intangibles — Goodwill and Other — Crypto Assets (Topic 350). The amendments in this update require entities that hold certain crypto assets to measure such assets at fair value and recognize any changes in fair value in net income in each reporting period. Entities will also be required to present crypto assets measured at fair value separately from other intangible assets on the balance sheet and changes from the remeasurement of crypto assets separately from changes in the carrying amounts of other intangible assets in the income statement. Other disclosure items include the name, cost basis, fair value, and number of units for each significant crypto asset holding and the aggregate fair values and cost bases of crypto asset holdings that are not individually significant along with a rollforward of activity in the reporting period and disclosure of the method for determining the cost basis of the crypto assets.

The Company adopted this accounting guidance on January 1, 2025. Although the Company has digital payment offerings, it does not currently hold crypto assets meeting the criteria outlined in the update. Accordingly, the adoption of this guidance did not have an impact on the Company's Consolidated Financial Statements.

Use of estimates

The preparation of financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Management's estimates and judgments are ongoing and are based on experience, current and expected future conditions, third-party evaluations and various other assumptions that management believes are reasonable under the circumstances. The results of these estimates form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities, as well as identifying and assessing the accounting treatment with respect to commitments and contingencies. Actual results may differ from those estimates and assumptions used in the Consolidated Financial Statements and related notes. Material estimates susceptible to significant changes in the near term, relate to: 1) the determination of the ACL; 2) certain assets and liabilities carried at fair value; and 3) accounting for income taxes.

Principles of consolidation

As of March 31, 2025, WAL has the following significant wholly-owned subsidiaries: WAB andeight unconsolidated subsidiaries used as business trusts in connection with the issuance of trust-preferred securities.

WAB has the following significant subsidiaries: 1) WABT, which holds certain investment securities, municipal and nonprofit loans, and leases; 2) WA PWI, which holds interests in certain limited partnerships invested primarily in low income housing tax credits and small business investment corporations; 3) Helios Prime, which holds interests in certain limited partnerships invested in renewable energy projects; 4) BW, which operates as a real estate investment trust and holds certain of WAB's real estate loans and related securities; and 5) Western Finance Company, which purchases and originates equipment finance leases and provides mortgage banking services through its wholly-owned subsidiary, AmeriHome.

The Company does not have any other significant entities that should be consolidated. All significant intercompany balances and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation.

Reclassifications

Certain amounts in the Consolidated Income Statements for the prior periods have been reclassified to conform to the current presentation. The reclassifications had no effect on net income or stockholders’ equity as previously reported.

2. INVESTMENT SECURITIES

The carrying amounts and fair values of investment securities are summarized as follows:

In addition, the Company held equity securities, which primarily consisted of preferred stock and CRA investments, with a fair value of $113 million and $117 million at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. Unrealized losses of $1.3 million and unrealized gains of $3.9 million on equity securities for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, were recognized in earnings as a component of Fair value gain adjustments, net.

Securities with carrying amounts of approximately $4.7 billion and $4.0 billion at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively, were pledged for various purposes as required or permitted by law.

The following tables summarize the Company's AFS debt securities in an unrealized loss position, aggregated by major security type and length of time in a continuous unrealized loss position:

(1)Includes securities with an ACL that have a fair value of $8 million and unrealized losses of $1 million.

(1)Includes securities with an ACL that have a fair value of $8 million and unrealized losses of $1 million.

The total number of AFS debt securities in an unrealized loss position at March 31, 2025 was 724, compared to 796 at December 31, 2024.

On a quarterly basis, the Company performs an impairment analysis on its AFS debt securities in an unrealized loss position at the end of the period to determine whether credit losses should be recognized on these securities.

Qualitative considerations made by the Company in its impairment analysis are further discussed below.

Government Issued Securities

U.S. Treasury securities and commercial and residential MBS are issued by either government agencies or GSEs. These securities are either explicitly or implicitly guaranteed by the U.S. government, and are highly rated by major rating agencies. Further, principal and interest payments on these securities continue to be made on a timely basis.

Non-Government Issued Securities

Qualitative factors used in the Company's credit loss assessment of its securities that are not issued and guaranteed by the U.S. government include consideration of any adverse conditions related to a specific security, industry, or geographic region of its securities, any credit ratings below investment grade, the payment structure of the security and the likelihood of the issuer to be able to make payments that increase in the future, and failure of the issuer to make any scheduled principal or interest payments.

For the Company's corporate debt and tax-exempt securities, the Company also considers various metrics of the issuer including days of cash on hand, the ratio of long-term debt to total assets, the net change in cash between reporting periods, and consideration of any breach in covenant requirements. The Company's corporate debt securities are primarily investment grade, issuers continue to make timely principal and interest payments, and the unrealized losses on these security portfolios primarily relate to changes in interest rates and other market conditions not considered to be credit-related issues. The Company continues to receive timely principal and interest payments on its tax-exempt securities and the majority of these issuers have revenues pledged for payment of debt service prior to payment of other types of expenses.

For the Company's private label residential MBS, which consist of non-agency collateralized mortgage obligations secured by pools of residential mortgage loans, the Company also considers metrics such as securitization risk weight factor, current credit support, whether there were any mortgage principal losses resulting from defaults in payments on the underlying mortgage collateral, and the credit default rate over the last twelve months. These securities primarily carry investment grade credit ratings, principal and interest payments on these securities continue to be made on a timely basis, and credit support for these securities is considered adequate.

The Company's CLO portfolio consists of highly rated securitization tranches, containing pools of medium- to large-sized corporate, high-yield loans. These are variable rate securities that have an investment grade rating of Single-A or better. Unrealized losses on these securities are primarily a function of the differential from the offer price and the valuation mid-market price as well as changes in interest rates.

Unrealized losses on the Company's other securities portfolio relate to taxable municipal and trust preferred securities. The Company is continuing to receive timely principal and interest payments on its taxable municipal securities, these securities continue to be highly rated and the number of days of cash on hand is strong. The Company's trust preferred securities are investment grade and the issuers continue to make timely principal and interest payments.

The following tables present a rollforward by major security type of the ACL on the Company's AFS debt securities:

The credit loss model under ASC 326-20, applicable to HTM debt securities, requires recognition of lifetime expected credit losses through an allowance account at the time the security is purchased.

The following table presents a rollforward by major security type of the ACL on the Company's HTM debt securities:

No allowance has been recognized on the Company's HTM private label residential MBS as losses are not expected due to the Company holding a senior position in these securities.

Accrued interest receivable on HTM debt securities totaled $5 million at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024 and is excluded from the estimate of expected credit losses.

The following tables summarize the carrying amount of the Company’s investment ratings position, which are updated quarterly and used to monitor the credit quality of the Company's securities:

(1)For rated securities, if ratings differ, the Company uses an average of the available ratings by major credit agencies.

(1)For rated securities, if ratings differ, the Company uses an average of the available ratings by major credit agencies.

A security is considered to be past due once it is 30 days contractually past due under the terms of the agreement. As of March 31, 2025, the Company did not have a significant amount of investment securities that were past due or on nonaccrual status.

The amortized cost and fair value of the Company's debt securities as of March 31, 2025, by contractual maturities are shown below. MBS are shown separately as individual MBS are comprised of pools of loans with varying maturities.

The following table presents gross gains and losses on sales of investment securities:

During the three months ended March 31, 2025, the Company sold AFS securities with a carrying value of $410 million and recognized a net gain of $2.1 million as U.S. Treasury securities and MBS were sold to secure gains. During the three months ended March 31, 2024, the Company sold securities with a carrying value of $1.4 billion and recognized a net loss of $0.9 million as CLOs were sold as part of the Company's efforts to shift the investment portfolio mix toward high quality liquid assets.

3. LOANS HELD FOR SALE

The Company purchases and originates residential mortgage loans that are held for sale or securitization primarily through its AmeriHome mortgage banking business channel.

The following is a summary of loans HFS by type:

(1) EBO loans are delinquent FHA, VA, or USDA loans purchased from GNMA pools under the terms of the GNMA MBS program that can be repooled when loans are brought current either through the borrower's reperformance or through completion of a loan modification.

The following is a summary of the net gain on loan purchase, origination, and sale activities on residential mortgage loans to be sold or securitized:

(1) Represents the difference between cash proceeds received upon settlement and loan basis.

4. LOANS, LEASES AND ALLOWANCE FOR CREDIT LOSSES

The composition of the Company's HFI loan portfolio is as follows:

Loans classified as HFI are stated at the amount of unpaid principal, adjusted for net deferred fees and costs, premiums and discounts on acquired and purchased loans, and an ACL. Net deferred fees of $108 million and $106 million reduced the carrying value of loans as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. Net unamortized purchase premiums on acquired and purchased loans of $175 million increased the carrying value of loans as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Nonaccrual and Past Due Loans

Loans are placed on nonaccrual status when management determines that the full repayment of principal and collection of interest according to contractual terms is no longer likely, generally when the loan becomes 90 days or more past due.

The following tables present nonperforming loan balances by loan portfolio segment:

Loans contractually delinquent by 90 days or more and still accruing totaled $319 million at March 31, 2025 and consisted of government guaranteed EBO and certain other residential loans.

Additionally, the recorded investment of consumer mortgage loans secured by residential real estate properties for which formal foreclosure proceedings are in process totaled $98 million and $99 million at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

Loans contractually delinquent by 90 days or more and still accruing totaled $326 million at December 31, 2024 and consisted of government guaranteed EBO residential loans.

The reduction in interest income associated with loans on nonaccrual status was approximately $8.0 million and $4.9 million for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

The following table presents an aging analysis of past due loans by loan portfolio segment:

Credit Quality Indicators

The Company categorizes loans into risk categories based on relevant information about the ability of borrowers to service their debt such as current financial information, historical payment experience, credit documentation, public information, and current economic trends, among other factors. The Company analyzes loans individually to classify the loans as to credit risk. The following tables present risk ratings by loan portfolio segment and origination year. The origination year is the year of origination or renewal.

Restructurings for Borrowers Experiencing Financial Difficulty

The following tables present the amortized cost basis of loans HFI that were modified during the period by loan portfolio segment:

The performance of these modified loans is monitored for 12 months following the modification. As of March 31, 2025, modified loans of $135 million were current with contractual payments and $164 million were on nonaccrual status. As of December 31, 2024, modified loans of $128 million were current with contractual payments and $169 million were on nonaccrual status.

In the normal course of business, the Company also modifies EBO loans, which are delinquent FHA, VA, or USDA insured or guaranteed loans repurchased under the terms of the GNMA MBS program and can be repooled or resold when loans are brought current either through the borrower's reperformance or completion of a loan modification. During the three months ended March 31, 2025, and 2024, the Company completed modifications of EBO loans with an amortized cost of $147 million and $90 million, respectively. These modifications consisted of term extensions, payment delays, and interest rate reductions. Certain of these loans were repooled or resold after modification and are no longer included in the pool of loan modifications being monitored for future performance. As of March 31, 2025, modified EBO loans consisted of $37 million in loans that were current to 89 days delinquent and $12 million in loans 90 days or more delinquent. As of December 31, 2024, modified EBO loans consisted of $29 million in loans that were current to 89 days delinquent and $11 million in loans 90 days or more delinquent.

Collateral-Dependent Loans

The following table presents the amortized cost basis of collateral-dependent loans by loan portfolio segment:

The Company did not identify any significant changes in the extent to which collateral secures its collateral dependent loans, whether in the form of general deterioration or from other factors during the period ended March 31, 2025.

Allowance for Credit Losses

The ACL consists of the ACL on funded loans HFI and an ACL on unfunded loan commitments. The ACL on HTM securities is estimated separately from loans, see "Note 2. Investment Securities" of these Notes to Unaudited Consolidated Financial Statements for further discussion. Management considers the level of ACL to be a reasonable and supportable estimate of expected credit losses inherent within the Company's HFI loan portfolio as of March 31, 2025.

The below tables reflect the activity in the ACL on loans HFI by loan portfolio segment, which includes an estimate of future recoveries:

Accrued interest receivable of $266 million and $272 million at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively, was excluded from the estimate of credit losses. Whereas, accrued interest receivable related to the Company's Residential-EBO loan portfolio segment was included in the estimate of credit losses and had an allowance of $1.3 million and $1.5 million as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. Accrued interest receivable, net of any allowance, is included in Other assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheet.

In addition to the ACL on funded loans HFI, the Company maintains a separate ACL related to off-balance sheet credit exposures, including unfunded loan commitments. This allowance is included in Other liabilities on the Consolidated Balance Sheet.

The below table reflects the activity in the ACL on unfunded loan commitments:

The following tables disaggregate the Company's ACL on funded loans HFI and loan balances by measurement methodology:

Loan Purchases and Sales

Loan purchases during the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024 totaled $335 million and $389 million, respectively, which primarily consisted of residential and commercial and industrial loan purchases. There were no loans purchased with more-than-insignificant deterioration in credit quality during the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024.

In the normal course of business, the Company also repurchases guaranteed or insured loans under the terms of the GNMA MBS program which can be repooled when loans are brought current either through the borrower's reperformance or completion of a loan modification and have demonstrated sustained performance for a period of time. The Company repurchased $127 million and $83 million of such EBO loans during the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Prior to repurchase, these loans are classified as loans eligible for repurchase, which is included as a component of Other assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheet.

During the three months ended March 31, 2025, the Company sold loans with a carrying value of approximately $218 million and recognized a net loss of $2.6 million on these loan sales. During the three months ended March 31, 2024, the Company sold loans with a carrying value of approximately $148 million and recognized charge-offs of $1.4 million and a net loss of $4.9 million related to these loan sales.

5. MORTGAGE SERVICING RIGHTS

The following table presents changes in the fair value of the Company's MSR portfolio related to its mortgage banking business and other information related to its servicing portfolio:

Changes in the fair value of MSRs are recorded as Net loan servicing revenue in the Consolidated Income Statement. Due to the regulatory capital impact of MSRs on capital ratios, the Company sells certain MSRs and related servicing advances in the normal course of business. The Company may also sell excess servicing spread related to certain mortgage loans serviced by the Company. During the three months ended March 31, 2025, the Company sold MSRs related to a portfolio of loans with a total UPB of $8.7 billion and recognized a net loss of $0.3 million on these sales. During the three months ended March 31, 2024, the Company sold MSRs related to a portfolio of loans with a total UPB of $10.8 billion and recognized a net gain of $2.7 million on these sales. As of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company had a remaining receivable balance of $12 million and $37 million, respectively, related to holdbacks on MSR sales for servicing transfers, which are recorded in Other assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheet.

The Company receives loan servicing fees, net of subservicing costs, based on the UPB of the underlying loans. Loan servicing fees are collected from payments made by borrowers. The Company may receive other remuneration from rights to various borrower contracted fees, such as late charges, collateral reconveyance charges, and non-sufficient funds fees. Contractually specified servicing fees, late fees, and ancillary income associated with the Company's MSR portfolio totaled $59.0 million for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and $67.0 million for the three months ended March 31, 2024. Early payoff fee income totaled $4.4 million and $4.8 million for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. These amounts are recorded as Net loan servicing revenue in the Consolidated Income Statement.

In accordance with its contractual loan servicing obligations, the Company is required to advance funds to or on behalf of investors when borrowers do not make payments. The Company advances property taxes and insurance premiums for borrowers who have insufficient funds in escrow accounts, plus any other costs to preserve real estate properties. The Company may also advance funds to maintain, repair, and market foreclosed real estate properties. The Company is entitled to recover all or a portion of the advances from borrowers of reinstated and performing loans, from the proceeds of liquidated properties or from the government agency or GSE guarantor of charged-off loans. Servicing advances are charged-off when they are deemed to be uncollectible. As of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, net servicing advances totaled $66 million and $84 million, respectively, which are recorded as Other assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheet.

The following table presents the effect of hypothetical changes in the fair value of MSRs caused by assumed immediate changes in the below inputs that are used to determine fair value:

Sensitivities are hypothetical changes in fair value and cannot be extrapolated because the relationship of changes in assumptions to changes in fair value may not be linear. In addition, the offsetting effect of hedging activities are not contemplated in these results and further, the effect of a variation in a particular assumption is calculated without changing any other assumptions, whereas a change in one factor may result in changes to another. Accordingly, no assurance can be given that actual results would be consistent with the results of these estimates. As a result, actual future changes in MSR values may differ significantly from those reported.

6. OTHER ASSETS ACQUIRED THROUGH FORECLOSURE

Other assets acquired through foreclosure consist primarily of properties acquired as a result of, or in-lieu-of, foreclosure. At March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company had a repossessed asset balance of $51 million and $52 million, respectively, net of a valuation allowance of $5 million, as of each date.

The majority of the repossessed asset balance at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024 related to a single office property. The Company held five properties at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

7. DEPOSITS

The table below summarizes deposits by type:

(1) Retail brokered time deposits over $250,000 of $5.3 billion and $5.6 billion as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively, are included within Other time deposits as these deposits are generally participated out by brokers in shares below the FDIC insurance limit.

A summary of the contractual maturities for all time deposits as of March 31, 2025 is as follows:

Brokered deposits provide an additional source of deposits and are placed with the Bank through third-party brokers. At March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company held wholesale brokered deposits of $6.2 billion and $6.9 billion, respectively, excluding reciprocal deposits. In addition, WAB is a participant in the IntraFi Network, a network that offers deposit placement services such as CDARS and ICS, and other reciprocal deposit networks, which offer products that qualify large deposits for FDIC insurance. At March 31, 2025, the Company had $13.3 billion of reciprocal deposits, compared to $14.0 billion at December 31, 2024.

In addition, deposits for which the Company provides account holders with earnings credits or referral fees totaled $24.1 billion and $20.7 billion at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. Costs related to these deposits are primarily reported as Deposit costs in non-interest expense. Deposit costs included $129.9 million and $131.2 million in deposit related costs on these deposits for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

8. OTHER BORROWINGS

The following table summarizes the Company’s other borrowings by type:

Short-Term Borrowings

Federal Funds Lines of Credit

The Company maintains uncommitted overnight federal fund lines of credit, which have rates comparable to the federal funds effective rate plus 0.10% to 0.20%. There wereno outstanding borrowings on federal fund lines of credit as of March 31, 2025.

FHLB and FRB Advances

The Company also maintains secured overnight lines of credit with the FHLB and the FRB. The Company’s borrowing capacity is determined based on collateral pledged at the time of the borrowing, generally consisting of investment securities and loans. As of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company had additional available credit with the FHLB of approximately $10.0 billion and $8.7 billion respectively. The weighted average rate on short-term FHLB advances was 4.65% and 4.77% as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

Total available credit with the FRB was $12.3 billion and $12.4 billion as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively, of which no amounts were drawn.

Repurchase Agreements

Warehouse borrowing lines of credit are used to finance the acquisition of loans through the use of repurchase agreements. Repurchase agreements operate as financings under which the Company transfers loans to secure these borrowings. The borrowing amounts are based on the attributes of the collateralized loans and are defined in the repurchase agreement of each warehouse lender. The Company retains beneficial ownership of the transferred loans and will receive the loans from the lender upon full repayment of the borrowing. The repurchase agreements may require the Company to transfer additional assets to the lender in the event the estimated fair value of the existing transferred loans declines.

As of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company had access to approximately $2.3 billion in uncommitted warehouse funding, of whichno amounts were drawn.

Other repurchase facilities include overnight customer repurchase agreements. The total carrying value of these repurchase agreements was $7 million and $14 million as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

Secured Borrowings

Secured borrowings consist of transfers of loans HFS not qualifying for sales accounting treatment. The weighted average interest rate on secured borrowings was 6.67% and 6.30% as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

Long-Term Borrowings

FHLB Advances

The Company also enters into long-term advances with the FHLB. The Company's borrowing capacity is determined based on the collateral pledged at the time of the borrowing, consisting of the same pools of investment securities and loans pledged for the short-term FHLB advances. The interest rates on these advances are based on daily SOFR plus a fixed spread. The Company may redeem the advances at par plus accrued and unpaid interest plus a make-whole provision upon termination that is based on the interest rate difference between the then current advance interest rate and the interest rate on the terminated advance. After three months from the inception date of the advances, prepayments are no longer subject to the make-whole provision. The weighted average rate on these long-term FHLB advances was 4.80% and 4.85% as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. During the three months ended March 31, 2025, the Company exercised its call option and redeemed $2.0 billion of these long-term FHLB advances.

The Company's outstanding long-term FHLB advances are detailed in the tables below:

Credit Linked Notes

The Company entered into credit linked note transactions that effectively transfer the risk of first losses on reference pools of the Company's loans purchased under its residential mortgage purchase program to the purchasers of the notes. The principal and interest payable on these notes may be reduced by a portion of the Company's loss on such loans if one of the following occurs with respect to a covered loan: (i) realized losses incurred by the Company on a loan following a liquidation of the loan or certain other events, or (ii) a modification of the loan resulting in a reduction in payments. The aggregate losses, if any, for each payment date will be allocated to reduce the class principal amount and (for modifications) the current interest of the notes in reverse order of class priority. Losses on residential mortgages have not generally been significant. Monthly principal payments on the notes are based on the principal payments of the underlying mortgages.

The Company's outstanding credit linked note issuances are detailed in the tables below:

(1) There are multiple classes of these notes, each with an interest rate of one-month SOFR plus a spread that ranges from 2.25% to 11.00% (or, a weighted average spread of 7.80%) on a reference pool balance of $1.7 billion as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

(2) There are multiple classes of these notes, each with an interest rate of one-month SOFR plus a spread that ranges from 2.25% to 15.00% (or, a weighted average spread of 6.00%) on a reference pool balance of $3.4 billion as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

(3) There aresix classes of these notes, each with an interest rate of one-month SOFR plus a spread that ranges from 3.15% to 8.50% (or, a weighted average spread of 4.67%) on a reference pool balance of $3.5 billion as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

9. QUALIFYING DEBT

Subordinated Debt

The Company's subordinated debt issuances are detailed in the tables below:

(1) Notes are redeemable, in whole or in part, beginning on June 15, 2026 at their principal amount plus accrued and unpaid interest and has a fixed interest rate of 3.00%. The notes also convert to a variable rate of three-month SOFR plus 225 basis points on this date.

(2) Debt is redeemable, in whole or in part, on or after June 1, 2025 at its principal amount plus accrued and unpaid interest and has a fixed interest rate of 5.25% through June 1, 2025 and then converts to a variable rate per annum equal to three-month SOFR plus 512 basis points.

The carrying value of all subordinated debt issuances totaled $820 million at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Junior Subordinated Debt

The Company has formed or acquired through acquisition eight statutory business trusts, which exist for the exclusive purpose of issuing Cumulative Trust Preferred Securities.

With the exception of debt issued by Bridge Capital Trust I and Bridge Capital Trust II, junior subordinated debt is recorded at fair value at each reporting date due to the FVO election made by the Company under ASC 825. The Company did not make the FVO election for the junior subordinated debt acquired in the Bridge acquisition. Accordingly, the carrying value of these trusts does not reflect the current fair value of the debt and includes a fair market value adjustment established at acquisition that is being accreted over the remaining life of the trusts.

The carrying value of junior subordinated debt was$78 million and $79 million as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively, with maturity dates ranging from 2033 through 2037. The weighted average interest rate of all junior subordinated debt as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024 was 6.89% and 6.90%, respectively.

In the event of certain changes or amendments to regulatory requirements or federal tax rules, the debt is redeemable in whole. The obligations under these instruments are fully and unconditionally guaranteed by the Company and rank subordinate and junior in right of payment to all other liabilities of the Company. Based on guidance issued by the FRB, the Company's securities continue to qualify as Tier 1 Capital.

10. STOCKHOLDERS' EQUITY

Stock-Based Compensation

Restricted Stock Awards

Restricted stock awards granted to employees generally vest over athree-year period and stock grants made to non-employee WAL directors generally vest overone year. The Company estimates the compensation cost for stock grants based upon the grant date fair value. Stock compensation expense is recognized on a straight-line basis over the requisite service period for the entire award. The aggregate grant date fair value for the restricted stock awards granted during the three months ended March 31, 2025 was $48.0 million, compared to $44.8 million for the three months ended March 31, 2024. Stock compensation expense related to restricted stock awards granted to employees is included in Salaries and employee benefits in the Consolidated Income Statement. For restricted stock awards granted to WAL directors, the related stock compensation expense is included in Legal, professional, and directors' fees. For the three months ended March 31, 2025, the Company recognized $12.1 million in stock-based compensation expense related to employee and WAL director stock grants, compared to $12.1 million for the three months ended March 31, 2024.

Performance Stock Units

The Company grants performance stock units to members of its executive management that do not vest unless the Company achieves certain performance measures over athree-year performance period. For the 2025 and 2024 awards, the performance measures are based on the Company’s relative return on equity and maintenance of a target CET1 ratio, and relative TSR performance. For the 2023 award, the performance measures are based on achievement of a specified cumulative EPS target and a TSR performance factor. The number of shares issued will vary based on the performance measures that are achieved. The Company estimates the cost of performance stock units based upon the grant date fair value and expected vesting percentage over thethree-year performance period. During the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, the Company recognized stock-based compensation expense related to these performance stock units of $1.6 million and $1.0 million, respectively.

Thethree-year performance period for the 2022 grant ended on December 31, 2024. The Company did not meet the cumulative EPS and TSR performance measure for the performance period. As a result, no shares became fully vested.

Thethree-year performance period for the 2021 grant ended on December 31, 2023, and based on the Company's cumulative EPS and TSR performance measure for the performance period, these shares vested at 168% of the target award under the terms of the grant. As a result,129,942 shares became fully vested and were distributed to executive management in the first quarter of 2024.

Cash Settled Restricted Stock Units

The Company grants cash settled restricted stock units to members of its executive management that vest equally on a monthly basis over athree-year period. As the awards are settled in cash and are not dependent on the occurrence of a future event, these awards are classified as liabilities on the Consolidated Balance Sheet. At each vesting date, the Company settles the vested stock units in cash at the settlement date stock price. During the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, the Company recognized compensation expense of $0.3 million and $0.1 million, respectively, related to these awards.

Deferred Stock Units

In 2024, the Company began granting deferred stock unit awards to certain members of its management team, which are intended to provide supplemental executive retirement benefits on an unfunded, unsecured basis. These awards can be settled in either stock or cash, at the Company's option. Participants are credited dividend equivalent units for any cash dividends paid with respect to the shares of stock underlying the stock units. These awards vest on the later of (i) the one-year anniversary of the grant date and (ii) the participant's satisfaction of age- and service-related eligibility criteria for a qualified retirement. The aggregate grant date fair value for these deferred stock unit awards granted during the three months ended March 31, 2025 was $1.5 million. Stock compensation expense related to these deferred stock units is included in Salaries and employee benefits in the Consolidated Income Statement. For the three months ended March 31, 2025, the Company recognized $1.6 million in stock-based compensation expense related to these stock grants. There wereno such units outstanding during the three months ended March 31, 2024.

Preferred Stock

The Company issued and has outstanding 12,000,000 depositary shares, each representing a 1/400th ownership interest in a share of the Company’s 4.250% Series A Fixed-Rate Reset Non-Cumulative Perpetual Preferred Shares, par value $0.0001 per share, with a liquidation preference of $25 per depositary share (equivalent to $10,000 per share of Series A preferred stock). The dividend rate resets every five years beginning on September 30, 2026 to the five-year treasury rate as of the most recent reset dividend determination date plus 3.452%. The Series A preferred stock is redeemable at the Company's option on or after September 30, 2026, on any dividend payment date at a redemption price of $10,000 per share and only participates in the undistributed earnings of the Company if a dividend is declared. During the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, the Company declared and paid a quarterly cash dividend of $0.27 per depositary share, for a total dividend payment to preferred stockholders of $3.2 million.

Cash Dividend on Common Shares

During the three months ended March 31, 2025, the Company declared and paid a quarterly cash dividend of $0.38 per share, for a total dividend payment to stockholders of $41.8 million. During the three months ended March 31, 2024, the Company declared and paid a quarterly cash dividend of $0.37 per share for a total dividend payment to stockholders of $40.7 million.

Treasury Shares

Treasury share purchases represent shares surrendered to the Company equal in value to the statutory payroll tax withholding obligations arising from the vesting of employee restricted stock awards. During the three months ended March 31, 2025, the Company purchased treasury shares of 121,485 at a weighted average price of $89.01 per share. During the three months ended March 31, 2024, the Company purchased treasury shares of 122,597, at a weighted average price of $61.55 per share.

Noncontrolling Interest

BW Series B Preferred Stock Issuance

On March 24, 2025, the Company, WAB, and BW entered into a purchase agreement pursuant to which BW issued and sold an aggregate of 300,000 shares of 9.500% Fixed-Rate Reset Non-Cumulative Exchangeable Perpetual Series B Preferred Stock, no par value per share, with a liquidation preference of $1,000 per share. Gross offering proceeds totaled $300 million, or $293 million net of issuance costs. The dividend rate resets every five years beginning on March 30, 2030 to the five-year treasury rate as of the most recent reset dividend determination date plus 5.402%. The Series B preferred stock is redeemable at BW's option on or after March 30, 2030, on any dividend payment date at the redemption price of $1,000 per share and only participates in the undistributed earnings of BW if a dividend is declared. The shares are conditionally exchangeable into 9.500% Fixed-Rate Reset Non-Cumulative Perpetual Series A Preferred Stock of WAB upon receipt of a directive from an appropriate federal regulatory authority upon the occurrence of certain specified exchange events.

11. ACCUMULATED OTHER COMPREHENSIVE INCOME (LOSS)

The following table summarizes the changes in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) by component, net of tax, for the periods indicated:

12. DERIVATIVES AND HEDGING ACTIVITIES

The Company is a party to various derivative instruments. The primary types of derivatives the Company uses are interest rate contracts, forward purchase and sale commitments, and interest rate futures. Generally, these instruments are used to help manage the Company's exposure to interest rate risk related to IRLCs and its inventory of loans HFS and MSRs and also to meet client financing and hedging needs.

Derivatives are recorded at fair value on the Consolidated Balance Sheet, after taking into account the effects of bilateral collateral and master netting agreements. These agreements allow the Company to settle all derivative contracts held with the same counterparty on a net basis, and to offset net derivative positions with related cash collateral, where applicable.

As of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company did not have any outstanding cash flow hedges.

Derivatives Designated in Hedge Relationships

The Company utilizes derivatives that have been designated as part of a hedge relationship in accordance with the applicable accounting guidance to minimize the exposure to changes in benchmark interest rates, which reduces asset sensitivity and volatility due to interest rate fluctuations, such that interest rate risk falls within Board approved limits. The primary derivative instruments used to manage interest rate risk are interest rate swaps, which convert the contractual interest rate index of agreed-upon amounts of assets and liabilities (i.e., notional amounts) from either a fixed rate to a variable rate, or from a variable rate to a fixed rate.

The Company has pay fixed/receive variable interest rate swaps designated as fair value hedges of certain fixed rate loans. As a result, the Company receives variable-rate interest payments in exchange for making fixed-rate payments over the lives of the contracts without exchanging the notional amounts. The variable-rate interest payments are based on SOFR plus a spread adjustment.

The Company also has pay fixed/receive variable interest rate swaps, designated as fair value hedges using the portfolio layer method to manage the exposure to changes in fair value associated with pools of fixed rate loans, resulting from changes in the designated benchmark interest rate (federal funds rate). These portfolio layer hedges provide the Company the ability to execute a fair value hedge of the interest rate risk associated with a portfolio of similar prepayable assets, whereby the last dollar amount estimated to remain in the portfolio of assets was identified as the hedged item. Under these interest rate swap contracts, the Company receives a variable rate and pays a fixed rate on the outstanding notional amount. During the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company terminated a portion of its portfolio layer method swaps. The terminated hedge had a notional value of $500 million and a cumulative loan basis adjustment of $4 million at the time of termination. The cumulative loan basis adjustment was allocated to the individual loans remaining within the closed pool and will be amortized over the remaining life of these loans through interest income.

The Company also had pay fixed/receive variable interest rate swaps, designated as fair value hedges using the last-of-layer method. Upon termination of these last-of-layer hedges in 2022, the cumulative basis adjustment on these hedges was allocated across the remaining loan pool and was being amortized over the remaining term. The terminated last-of-layer hedge basis adjustment was fully amortized as of December 31, 2024.

Derivatives Not Designated in Hedge Relationships

Management enters into certain contracts and agreements, including foreign exchange derivative contracts, back-to-back interest rate contracts, risk participation agreements and equity warrants, which are not designated as accounting hedges. Foreign exchange derivative contracts include spot, forward, forward window, and swap contracts. The purpose of these derivative contracts is to mitigate foreign currency risk on transactions entered into, or on behalf of customers. The Company's back-to-back interest rate contracts are used to allow customers to manage long-term interest rate risk. Contracts with customers, along with the related derivative trades the Company places, are both remeasured at fair value, and are referred to as economic hedges since they economically offset the Company's exposure.

The Company also uses derivative financial instruments to manage exposure to interest rate risk within its mortgage banking business related to IRLCs and its inventory of loans HFS and MSRs. The Company economically hedges the changes in fair value associated with changes in interest rates generally by utilizing forward purchase and sale commitments, interest rate futures and interest rate contracts.

Risk participation agreements are entered into with lead banks in certain loan syndications to share in the risk of default on interest rate swaps on participated loans. Equity warrants represent the right to buy shares in a company at a specified price and are acquired by the Company primarily in connection with negotiating credit facilities and certain other services to private, venture-backed companies in the technology industry.

Fair Value Hedges

As of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the following amounts are reflected on the Consolidated Balance Sheet related to cumulative basis adjustments for outstanding fair value hedges:

(1)Included in the carrying value of the hedged assets.

(2)Included portfolio layer method derivative instruments with $4.0 billion designated as the hedged amount (from a closed portfolio of prepayable fixed rate loans with a carrying value of $8.6 billion and $8.7 billion) as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. The cumulative basis adjustment included in the carrying value of these hedged items totaled $20 million and $78 million as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

For the Company's derivative instruments that are designated and qualify as fair value hedges, the gain or loss on the derivative instrument as well as the offsetting loss or gain on the hedged item attributable to the hedged risk are recognized in current period earnings. The loss or gain on the hedged item is recognized in the same line item as the offsetting loss or gain on the related interest rate swaps. For loans, the gain or loss on the hedged item is included in interest income, as shown in the table below.

In addition to the gains and losses on the Company's outstanding fair value hedges presented in the above table, the Company recognized less than $0.1 million in interest income related to the amortization of the cumulative basis adjustment on its discontinued portfolio layer method hedges during the three months ended March 31, 2025 and $3.0 million related to its discontinued last-of-layer hedges during the three months ended March 31, 2024.

Fair Values, Volume of Activity, and Gain/Loss Information Related to Derivative Instruments

The following table summarizes the fair value of the Company's derivative instruments on a gross basis as of March 31, 2025, December 31, 2024, and March 31, 2024. The change in the notional amounts of these derivatives from March 31, 2024 to March 31, 2025 indicates the volume of the Company's derivative transaction activity during these periods. The derivative asset and liability balances are presented on a gross basis, prior to the application of bilateral collateral and master netting agreements. Total derivative assets and liabilities are adjusted to take into account the impact of legally enforceable master netting agreements that allow the Company to settle all derivative contracts with the same counterparty on a net basis and to offset the net derivative position with the related cash collateral. Where master netting agreements are not in effect or are not enforceable under bankruptcy laws, the Company does not adjust those derivative amounts with counterparties.

(1)The Company enters into futures purchase and sales contracts that are subject to daily remargining and almost all of which are based on three-month SOFR to hedge against its MSR valuation exposure. The notional amount on these contracts is substantial as these contracts have a short duration and are intended to cover the longer duration of MSR hedges.

The fair value of derivative contracts, after taking into account the effects of master netting agreements, is included in Other assets or Other liabilities on the Consolidated Balance Sheet, as summarized in the table below:

The following table summarizes the net gain (loss) on derivatives included in the non-interest income line items below:

Counterparty Credit Risk

Like other financial instruments, derivatives contain an element of credit risk. This risk is measured as the expected replacement value of the contracts. Management enters into bilateral collateral and master netting agreements that provide for the net settlement of all contracts with the same counterparty. Additionally, management monitors counterparty credit risk exposure on each contract to determine appropriate limits on the Company's total credit exposure across all product types, which may require the Company to post collateral to counterparties when these contracts are in a net liability position and conversely, for counterparties to post collateral to the Company when these contracts are in a net asset position. Management reviews the Company's collateral positions on a daily basis and exchanges collateral with counterparties in accordance with standard ISDA documentation and other related agreements. The Company generally posts or holds collateral in the form of cash deposits or highly rated securities issued by the U.S. Treasury or government-sponsored enterprises (FNMA and FHLMC), or guaranteed by GNMA. At March 31, 2025, December 31, 2024, and March 31, 2024 collateral pledged by the Company to counterparties for its derivatives totaled $194 million, $117 million, and $146 million, respectively.

13. EARNINGS PER SHARE

Diluted EPS is calculated using the weighted average outstanding common shares during the period, including common stock equivalents. Basic EPS is calculated using the weighted average outstanding common shares during the period.

The following table presents the calculation of basic and diluted EPS:

14. INCOME TAXES

The Company's effective tax rate was 19.2% and 23.5% for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. The decrease in the effective tax rate for the three months ended March 31, 2025 compared to the same period in 2024 was primarily due to a decrease in nondeductible insurance premiums and an increase in investment tax credit benefits.

As of March 31, 2025, the net DTA balance totaled $272 million, a decrease of $9 million from $281 million at December 31, 2024. This overall decrease in the net DTA was primarily the result of increases in the MSR DTL and the fair market value of AFS securities, which were partially offset by an increase in credit carryovers.

Although realization is not assured, the Company believes that the realization of the recognized net DTA of $272 million at March 31, 2025 is more-likely-than-not based on expectations as to future taxable income and based on available tax planning strategies that could be implemented if necessary to prevent a carryover from expiring.

At March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the Company hadno deferred tax valuation allowance.

LIHTC and renewable energy projects

The Company holds ownership interests in limited partnerships and limited liability companies that invest in affordable housing and renewable energy projects. These investments are designed to generate a return primarily through the realization of federal tax credits and deductions.

Investments in LIHTC and renewable energy totaled $591 million and $606 million as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. Unfunded LIHTC and renewable energy obligations are included in Other liabilities on the Consolidated Balance Sheet and totaled $317 million and $320 million as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

During the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, the Company recognized $17.6 million and $19.7 million, respectively, of tax credits related to LIHTC investments. For the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, amortization related to LIHTC investments of $15.1 million and $18.6 million, respectively, was recognized as a component of income tax expense.

15. COMMITMENTS AND CONTINGENCIES

Unfunded Commitments and Letters of Credit

The Company is party to financial instruments with off-balance sheet risk in the normal course of business to meet the financing needs of its customers. These financial instruments include commitments to extend credit and letters of credit. They involve, to varying degrees, elements of credit risk in excess of amounts recognized on the Consolidated Balance Sheet.

Lines of credit are obligations to lend money to a borrower. Credit risk arises when the borrower's current financial condition may indicate less ability to pay than when the commitment was originally made. In the case of letters of credit, the risk arises from the potential failure of the customer to perform according to the terms of a contract. In such a situation, the third party might draw on the letter of credit to pay for completion of the contract and the Company would look to its customer to repay these funds with interest. To minimize the risk, the Company uses the same credit policies in making commitments and conditional obligations as it would for a loan to that customer.

Letters of credit and financial guarantees are commitments issued by the Company to guarantee the performance of a customer to a third party in borrowing arrangements. The Company generally has recourse to recover from the customer any amounts paid under the guarantees.

A summary of the contractual amounts for unfunded commitments and letters of credit are as follows:

Commitments to extend credit are agreements to lend to a customer provided there is no violation of any condition established in the contract. Commitments generally have fixed expiration dates or other termination clauses and may require payment of a fee. The Company enters into credit arrangements that generally provide for the termination of advances in the event of a covenant violation or other event of default. As commitments may expire without being fully drawn upon, the total commitment amounts do not necessarily represent future cash requirements. The Company evaluates each customer’s creditworthiness on a case-by-case basis. The amount of collateral obtained, if deemed necessary by the Company upon extension of credit, is based on management’s credit evaluation of the party. The commitments are collateralized by the same types of assets used as loan collateral.

The Company has exposure to credit losses from unfunded commitments and letters of credit. As funds have not been disbursed on these commitments, they are not reported as loans outstanding. Credit losses related to these commitments are included in Other liabilities as a separate loss contingency and are not included in the ACL reported in "Note 4. Loans, Leases and Allowance for Credit Losses" of these Notes to Unaudited Consolidated Financial Statements. This loss contingency for unfunded loan commitments and letters of credit was $35.1 million and $39.5 million as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. Changes to this liability are adjusted through the provision for credit losses in the Consolidated Income Statement.

Commitments to Invest in Renewable Energy Projects

The Company has off-balance sheet commitments to invest in renewable energy projects, as described in "Note 14. Income Taxes" of these Notes to Unaudited Consolidated Financial Statements, subject to the underlying project meeting certain milestones. These conditional commitments totaled $6 million as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Concentrations of Lending Activities

The Company does not have a single external customer from which it derives 10% or more of its revenues. The Company monitors concentrations of lending activities at the product and borrower relationship level. Commercial and industrial loans made up 44% and 43% of the Company's HFI loan portfolio as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. The Company's loan portfolio includes significant credit exposure to the CRE market. As of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, CRE related loans accounted for approximately 30% of total loans. Approximately 15% and 16% of CRE loans, excluding construction and land loans, were owner-occupied as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. No borrower relationships at both the commitment and funded loan level exceeded 5% of total loans HFI as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

Contingencies

The Company is involved in various lawsuits of a routine nature that are being handled and defended in the ordinary course of the Company’s business. Expenses are being incurred in connection with these lawsuits, but in the opinion of management, based in part on consultation with outside legal counsel, the resolution of these lawsuits and associated defense costs will not have a material impact on the Company’s financial position, results of operations, or cash flows.

16. FAIR VALUE ACCOUNTING

The fair value of an asset or liability is the price that would be received to sell the asset or paid to transfer the liability in an orderly transaction occurring in the principal market (or most advantageous market in the absence of a principal market) for such asset or liability. In estimating fair value, the Company utilizes valuation techniques that are consistent with the market approach, the income approach, and/or the cost approach. Such valuation techniques are consistently applied. Inputs to valuation techniques include the assumptions market participants would use in pricing an asset or liability. ASC 825 establishes a fair value hierarchy that prioritizes the inputs to valuation techniques used to measure fair value. The hierarchy gives the highest priority to unadjusted quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities (Level 1 measurements) and the lowest priority to unobservable inputs (Level 3 measurements). The three levels of the fair value hierarchy under ASC 825 are described in "Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies" of these Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.

In general, fair value is based upon quoted market prices, where available. If such quoted market prices are not available, fair value is based upon internally-developed models that primarily use, as inputs, observable market-based parameters. Valuation adjustments may be made to ensure financial instruments are recorded at fair value. These adjustments may include amounts to reflect counterparty credit quality and the Company’s creditworthiness, among other things, as well as unobservable parameters. Any such valuation adjustments are applied consistently over time. The Company’s valuation methodologies may produce a fair value calculation that may not be indicative of net realizable value or reflective of future fair values. While management believes the Company’s valuation methodologies are appropriate and consistent with other market participants, the use of different methodologies or assumptions to determine the fair value of certain financial instruments could result in a different estimate of fair value at the reporting date. A more detailed description of the valuation methodologies used for assets and liabilities measured at fair value is set forth below.

Under ASC 825, the Company elected the FVO treatment for junior subordinated debt issued by WAL. This election is irrevocable and results in the recognition of unrealized gains and losses on the debt at each reporting date. These unrealized gains and losses are recognized in OCI rather than earnings. The Company did not elect FVO treatment for the junior subordinated debt assumed in the Bridge Capital Holdings acquisition.

The following table presents unrealized gains and losses from fair value changes on junior subordinated debt:

Fair value on a recurring basis

Financial assets and financial liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis include the following:

AFS debt securities: Securities classified as AFS are reported at fair value utilizing Level 1 and Level 2 inputs. For these securities, the Company obtains fair value measurements from an independent pricing service. The fair value measurements consider observable data that may include quoted prices in active markets, dealer quotes, market spreads, cash flows, the U.S. Treasury yield curve, live trading levels, trade execution data, market consensus prepayment speeds, credit information, and the bond’s terms and conditions, among other things.

Equity securities: Preferred stock and CRA investments are reported at fair value utilizing Level 1 inputs.

Independent pricing service: The Company's independent pricing service provides pricing information on the majority of the Company's Level 1 and Level 2 AFS debt securities. For a small subset of securities, other pricing sources are used, including observed prices on publicly-traded securities and dealer quotes. Management independently evaluates the fair value measurements received from the Company's third-party pricing service through multiple review steps. First, management reviews what has transpired in the marketplace with respect to interest rates, credit spreads, volatility, and mortgage rates, among other things, and develops an expectation of changes to the securities' valuations from the previous quarter. Then, management selects a sample of investment securities and compares the values provided by its primary third-party pricing service to the market values obtained from secondary sources, including other pricing services and safekeeping statements, and evaluates those with notable variances. In instances where there are discrepancies in pricing from various sources and management expectations, management may manually price securities using currently observed market data to determine whether they can develop similar prices or may utilize bid information from broker dealers. Any remaining discrepancies between management’s review and the prices provided by the vendor are discussed with the vendor and/or the Company’s other valuation advisors.

Loans HFS: Government-insured or guaranteed and agency-conforming 1-4 family residential loans HFS are salable into active markets. Accordingly, the fair value of these loans is based primarily on quoted market or contracted selling prices or a market price equivalent, which are categorized as Level 2 in the fair value hierarchy.

Mortgage servicing rights: MSRs are measured based on valuation techniques using Level 3 inputs. The Company uses a discounted cash flow model that incorporates assumptions market participants would use in estimating the fair value of servicing rights, including, but not limited to, option adjusted spread, conditional prepayment rate, servicing fee rate, recapture rate, and cost to service.

Derivative financial instruments: Forward contracts are measured based on valuation techniques using Level 2 inputs, such as quoted market prices, contracted selling prices, or a market price equivalent. Interest rate and foreign currency contracts are reported at fair value utilizing Level 2 inputs. The Company obtains dealer quotations to value its interest rate contracts. IRLCs are measured based on valuation techniques that consider loan type, underlying loan amount, maturity date, note rate, loan program, and expected settlement date, with Level 3 inputs for the servicing release premium and pull-through rate. These measurements are adjusted at the loan level to consider the servicing release premium and loan pricing adjustment specific to each loan. The base value is then adjusted for estimated pull-through rates. The pull-through rate and servicing fee multiple are unobservable inputs based on historical experience. Equity warrants are measured using a Black-Scholes option pricing model based on contractual strike price, expected term, the risk-free interest rate, and volatility, which may be adjusted for a lack of marketability. The volatility input is considered Level 3 as the underlying equity is not publicly traded and is determined using comparable publicly traded companies.

Junior subordinated debt: The Company estimates the fair value of its junior subordinated debt using a discounted cash flow model which incorporates the effect of the Company’s own credit risk in the fair value of the liabilities (Level 3). The Company’s cash flow assumptions are based on contractual cash flows as the Company anticipates it will pay the debt according to its contractual terms.

The fair value of assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis was determined using the following inputs:

(1)See "Note 12. Derivatives and Hedging Activities." In addition, the carrying value of loans is decreased by $32 million as of March 31, 2025 for the effective portion of the hedge, which relates to the fair value of the hedges put in place to mitigate against fluctuations in interest rates. Derivative assets and liabilities exclude margin of $156 million and $(31) million, respectively.

(2)Includes only the portion of loans HFS that is recorded at fair value at each reporting period pursuant to the election of FVO treatment.

(3)Includes only the portion of junior subordinated debt that is recorded at fair value at each reporting period pursuant to the election of FVO treatment.

(1)See "Note 12. Derivatives and Hedging Activities." In addition, the carrying value of loans is decreased by $96 million as of December 31, 2024 for the effective portion of the hedge, which relates to the fair value of the hedges put in place to mitigate against fluctuations in interest rates. Derivative assets and liabilities exclude margin of $72 million and $3 million, respectively.

(2)Includes only the portion of loans HFS that is recorded at fair value at each reporting period pursuant to the election of FVO treatment.

(3)Includes only the portion of junior subordinated debt that is recorded at fair value at each reporting period pursuant to the election of FVO treatment.

The change in Level 3 liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis included in OCI was as follows:

(1)Unrealized gains (losses) attributable to changes in the fair value of junior subordinated debt are recorded in OCI, net of tax, and totaled $1.1 million and $(0.5) million for three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

The significant unobservable inputs used in the fair value measurements of these Level 3 liabilities were as follows:

The significant unobservable inputs used in the fair value measurement of the Company’s junior subordinated debt as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024 was the implied credit risk for the Company. The implied credit risk spread as of March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024 was calculated as the difference between the average of the 10 and 15-year 'BB' rated financial indexes over the corresponding swap indexes.

As of March 31, 2025, the Company estimates the discount rate at 7.69%, which represents an implied credit spread of 3.40% plus three-month SOFR (4.29%). As of December 31, 2024, the Company estimated the discount rate at 7.43%, which was a 3.12% credit spread plus three-month SOFR (4.31%).

The change in Level 3 assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis included in income was as follows:

(1) IRLC asset and liability positions are presented net.

(2) Amounts recognized as part of non-interest income.

The significant unobservable inputs used in the fair value measurements of these Level 3 assets and liabilities were as follows:

(1) Lifetime total prepayment speed annualized.

The following is a summary of the difference between the aggregate fair value and the aggregate UPB of loans HFS for which the FVO has been elected:

Fair value on a nonrecurring basis

Certain assets are measured at fair value on a nonrecurring basis. That is, the assets are not measured at fair value on an ongoing basis, but are subject to fair value adjustments in certain circumstances (for example, when there is evidence of credit deterioration). The following table presents such assets carried on the Consolidated Balance Sheet by caption and by level within the ASC 825 hierarchy:

For Level 3 assets measured at fair value on a nonrecurring basis as of period end, the significant unobservable inputs used in the fair value measurements were as follows:

Loans HFI: Loans measured at fair value on a nonrecurring basis include collateral dependent loans. The specific reserves for these loans are based on collateral value, net of estimated disposition costs and other identified quantitative inputs. Collateral value is determined based on independent third-party appraisals or internally-developed discounted cash flow analyses. Appraisals may utilize a single valuation approach or a combination of approaches, including comparable sales and the income approach. Fair value is determined, where possible, using market prices derived from an appraisal or evaluation, which are considered to be Level 2. However, certain assumptions and unobservable inputs are often used by the appraiser, therefore qualifying the assets as Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy. In addition, when adjustments are made to an appraised value to reflect various factors such as the age of the appraisal or known changes in the market or the collateral, such valuation inputs are considered unobservable and the fair value measurement is categorized as a Level 3 measurement. Internal discounted cash flow analyses are also utilized to estimate the fair value of these loans, which considers internally-developed, unobservable inputs such as discount rates, default rates, and loss severity.

Total Level 3 collateral dependent loans had an estimated fair value of $735 million and $561 million at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively, net of a specific ACL of $50 million and $46 million at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

Other assets acquired through foreclosure: Other assets acquired through foreclosure consist of properties acquired as a result of, or in-lieu-of, foreclosure. These assets are initially reported at the fair value determined by independent appraisals using appraised value less estimated cost to sell. Such properties are generally re-appraised every 12 months. Costs relating to the development or improvement of the assets are capitalized and costs relating to holding the assets are charged to expense.

Fair value is determined, where possible, using market prices derived from an appraisal or evaluation, which are considered to be Level 2. However, certain assumptions and unobservable inputs are often used by the appraiser, therefore qualifying the assets as Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy. When significant adjustments are based on unobservable inputs, such as when a current appraised value is not available or management determines the fair value of the collateral is further impaired below the appraised value and there is no observable market price, the resulting fair value measurement has been categorized as a Level 3 measurement. The Company had $51 million and $52 million of such assets at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively.

Fair Value of Financial Instruments

The estimated fair value of the Company’s financial instruments is as follows:

(1) Derivative assets and liabilities exclude margin of $156 million and $(31) million, respectively.

(1) Derivative assets and liabilities exclude margin of $72 million and $3 million, respectively.

Interest rate risk

The Company assumes interest rate risk (the risk to the Company’s earnings and capital from changes in interest rate levels) as a result of its normal operations. As a result, the fair values of the Company’s financial instruments, as well as its future net interest income, will change when interest rate levels change and that change may be either favorable or unfavorable to the Company.

Interest rate risk exposure is measured using interest rate sensitivity analysis to determine the Company's change in EVE and net interest income resulting from hypothetical changes in interest rates. If potential changes to EVE and earnings resulting from hypothetical interest rate changes are not within the limits established by the BOD, the BOD may direct management to adjust the asset and liability mix to bring interest rate risk within BOD-approved limits.

WAB has an ALCO charged with managing interest rate risk within the BOD-approved limits. Limits are structured to preclude an interest rate risk profile which does not conform to both management and BOD risk tolerances without BOD and ALCO approval. Interest rate risk is also evaluated at the Parent level, which is reported to the BOD and its Finance and Investment Committee.

Fair value of commitments

The estimated fair value of letters of credit outstanding at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024 approximates zero as there have been no significant changes in borrower creditworthiness. Loan commitments on which the committed interest rates are less than the current market rate are insignificant at March 31, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

17. SEGMENTS

Beginning with the annual period ending December 31, 2024, the Company adopted the guidance within ASU 2023-07, Segment Reporting (Topic 280), which expanded disclosure requirements for significant segment expenses and other segment items. In connection with the adoption of this guidance, the components that comprise net interest income, which include interest income, interest expense, and funds transfer pricing adjustments, are presented in separate line items in the reportable segment income statement tables below. Salaries and employee benefits are also presented separately as these expenses were previously included within total non-interest expense. Income statement information for prior periods was recast to conform to the current presentation.

The Company's reportable segments are aggregated with a focus on products and services offered and consist ofthree reportable segments:

•Commercial: provides commercial banking and treasury management products and services to small and middle-market businesses, specialized banking services to sophisticated commercial institutions and investors within niche industries, as well as financial services to the real estate industry.

•Consumer Related: offers both commercial banking services to enterprises in consumer-related sectors and consumer banking services, such as residential mortgage banking.

•Corporate & Other: consists of the Company's investment portfolio, Corporate borrowings and other related items, income and expense items not allocated to other reportable segments, and inter-segment eliminations.

The Company's segment reporting process begins with the assignment of all loan and deposit accounts directly to the segments where these products are originated and/or serviced. Equity capital is assigned to each segment based on the risk profile of their assets and liabilities. With the exception of goodwill, which is assigned a 100% weighting, equity capital allocations ranged from 0% to 25% during the period. Any excess or deficient equity not allocated to segments based on risk is assigned to the Corporate & Other segment.

Net interest income, provision for credit losses, and non-interest expense amounts are recorded in their respective segments to the extent the amounts are directly attributable to those segments. Net interest income is recorded in each segment on a TEB with a corresponding increase in income tax expense, which is eliminated in the Corporate & Other segment.

Further, net interest income of a reportable segment includes a funds transfer pricing process that matches assets and liabilities with similar interest rate sensitivity and maturity characteristics. Using this funds transfer pricing methodology, liquidity is transferred between users and providers. A net user of funds has lending/investing in excess of deposits/borrowings and a net provider of funds has deposits/borrowings in excess of lending/investing. A segment that is a user of funds is charged for the use of funds, while a provider of funds is credited through funds transfer pricing, which is determined based on the average estimated life of the assets or liabilities in the portfolio. Residual funds transfer pricing mismatches are allocable to the Corporate & Other segment and presented in net interest income.

The net income amount for each reportable segment is further derived by the use of expense allocations. Certain expenses not directly attributable to a specific segment are allocated across all segments based on key metrics, such as number of employees, number of transactions processed for loans and deposits, and average loan and deposit balances. These types of expenses include information technology, operations, human resources, finance, risk management, credit administration, legal, and marketing.

Income taxes are applied to each segment based on estimated effective tax rates. Any difference in the corporate tax rate and the aggregate effective tax rates in the segments are adjusted in the Corporate & Other segment.

The assignment and allocation methodologies used in the segment reporting process discussed above change from time to time as systems are enhanced, methods for evaluating segment performance or product lines change or as business segments are realigned.

The following is a summary of operating segment information for the periods indicated:

(1) The composition of other non-interest expense is consistent with Non-interest expense as presented in the Consolidated Income Statement.

18. REVENUE FROM CONTRACTS WITH CUSTOMERS

Revenue streams within the scope of ASC 606 include service charges and fees, interchange fees on credit and debit cards, and legal settlement service fees. These revenues totaled $23.0 million and $13.5 million for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. The Company had no material unsatisfied performance obligations as of March 31, 2025 or December 31, 2024.