OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

1. Organization

Oppenheimer Holdings Inc. ("OPY" or the "Parent") is incorporated under the laws of the State of Delaware. The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of OPY and its consolidated subsidiaries (together, the "Company"). Oppenheimer Holdings Inc., through its operating subsidiaries, is a leading middle market investment bank and full service broker-dealer that is engaged in a broad range of activities in the financial services industry, including retail securities brokerage, institutional sales and trading, investment banking (corporate and public finance), equity and fixed income research, market-making, trust services, and investment advisory and asset management services.

The Company is headquartered in New York and has 88 branch offices in 25 states located throughout the United States and offices in Puerto Rico, Tel Aviv, Israel, Hong Kong, China, London, England, St. Helier, Isle of Jersey, and Geneva, Switzerland. The principal subsidiaries of OPY are Oppenheimer & Co. Inc. ("Oppenheimer"), a registered broker-dealer in securities and investment adviser under the Investment Advisers Act of 1940; Oppenheimer Asset Management Inc. ("OAM") and its wholly-owned subsidiary, Oppenheimer Investment Management LLC, both registered investment advisers under the Investment Advisers Act of 1940; Oppenheimer Trust Company of Delaware ("Oppenheimer Trust"), a limited purpose trust company that provides fiduciary services such as trust and estate administration and investment management; OPY Credit Corp., which conducts secondary trading activities related to the purchase and sale of loans and trade claims, primarily on a riskless principal basis; Oppenheimer Europe Ltd., based in the United Kingdom, with offices in the Isle of Jersey, and Switzerland, which provides institutional equities and fixed income brokerage and corporate finance and is regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority; and Oppenheimer Investments Asia Limited, based in Hong Kong, China, which provides fixed income and equities brokerage services to institutional investors and is regulated by the Securities and Futures Commission.

Oppenheimer owns Freedom Investments, Inc. ("Freedom"), a registered broker dealer in securities, which provides discount brokerage services on a limited basis, and Oppenheimer Israel (OPCO) Ltd., based in Tel Aviv, Israel, which provides investment services in the State of Israel and operates subject to the authority of the Israel Securities Authority.

2. Summary of significant accounting policies and estimates

Basis of Presentation

The consolidated financial statements of the Company have been prepared in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America ("U.S. GAAP"). Intercompany transactions and balances have been eliminated in the preparation of the consolidated financial statements.

Change in Presentation

Effective June 30, 2022, the Company reclassified certain stockholders' equity amounts on the consolidated balance sheet and consolidated statements of changes in stockholders' equity and redeemable non-controlling interests. The reclassification included separately presenting the par value of common stock, and combining previously disclosed share capital and contributed capital amounts in the currently reported additional paid-in capital amount. The reclassification had no impact on previously reported total stockholders’ equity amounts.

Use of Estimates

The preparation of the consolidated financial statements in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosures of contingent assets and liabilities at the dates of the consolidated financial statements and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting periods.

In presenting the consolidated financial statements, management makes estimates regarding valuations of financial instruments, loans and allowances for credit losses, the outcome of legal and regulatory matters, goodwill and other intangible assets, share-based compensation plans and income taxes. Estimates, by their nature, are based on judgment and available information. Therefore, actual results may differ materially from the estimates.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Accounting Standards Recently Adopted

ASU 2023-07 – Segment Reporting (Topic 280): Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures

In November 2023, the FASB issued this ASU to improve reportable segment disclosure requirements, primarily through enhanced disclosures about significant segment expenses. The revised guidance requires disclosure of significant segment expenses that are regularly provided to the chief operating decision maker (“CODM”), the title and position of the CODM and how the CODM uses the reported measures of segment profit or loss in assessing segment performance and make decisions about resource allocation, among other requirements. The Company adopted this guidance effective December 31, 2024. Refer to note 21 for additional information.

Financial Instruments and Fair Value

Financial Instruments

Securities owned, securities sold but not yet purchased, investments and derivative contracts are carried at fair value with changes in fair value recognized in earnings each period.

Fair Value Measurements

Accounting guidance for the fair value measurement of financial assets defines fair value, establishes a framework for measuring fair value, establishes a fair value measurement hierarchy, and requires certain fair value measurement disclosures. Fair value, as defined by the accounting guidance, is the price that would be received in the sale of an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. The fair value hierarchy established by this accounting guidance prioritizes the inputs used in valuation techniques into the following three categories (highest to lowest priority):

Level 1: Observable inputs that reflect quoted prices (unadjusted) for identical assets or liabilities in active markets;

Level 2: Inputs other than quoted prices included in Level 1 that are observable for the asset or liability either directly or indirectly; and

Level 3: Unobservable inputs that are significant to the overall fair value measurement.

The Company's financial instruments that are recorded at fair value generally are classified within Level 1 or Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy using quoted market prices or other pricing sources with reasonable levels of price transparency. Financial instruments classified within Level 1 are valued based on quoted market prices in active markets and consist of U.S. Treasury securities and corporate equities. Level 2 financial instruments primarily consist of investment grade and high-yield corporate debt, convertible bonds, U.S. Agency securities, mortgage and asset-backed securities, and municipal obligations. Financial instruments classified as Level 2 are valued based on quoted prices for similar assets and liabilities in active markets, pricing models which incorporate market observable inputs and quoted prices for identical or similar assets and liabilities in markets that are not active. Some financial instruments such as auction rate securities ("ARS") and trade claims are classified within Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy as observable pricing inputs are not available due to limited market activity for the asset or liability. As of December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, the Company had $2.7 million and $2.7 million respectively, of ARS in Level 3 assets. As of December 31, 2024, the Company had $2.7 million of trade claims in Level 3 assets. See note 8 for further details.

Consolidation

The Company consolidates all subsidiaries in which it has a controlling financial interest, as well as any variable interest entities ("VIEs") where the Company is deemed to be the primary beneficiary, when it has the power to make the decisions that most significantly affect the economic performance of the VIE and has the obligation to absorb significant losses or the right to receive benefits that could potentially be significant to the VIE. The Company reviews factors, including the rights of the equity holders at risk and obligations of equity holders to absorb losses or receive expected residual returns, to determine if the entity is a VIE. Under U.S. GAAP, a general partner will not consolidate a partnership or similar entity under the voting interest model. See note 10 for further details.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Financing Receivables

The Company's financing receivables include customer margin loans, securities purchased under agreements to resell ("reverse repurchase agreements"), and securities borrowed transactions. The Company uses financing receivables to extend margin loans to customers, meet trade settlement requirements, and facilitate its matched-book arrangements and inventory requirements.

The Company's financing receivables are secured by collateral received from clients and counterparties. In many cases, the Company is permitted to sell or re-pledge securities held as collateral. These securities may be used to collateralize repurchase agreements, to enter into securities lending agreements, to cover short positions or to fulfill the obligation of securities fails to deliver. The Company monitors the fair value of the collateral received on a daily basis and may require clients and counterparties to deposit additional collateral or return collateral pledged, when appropriate.

Customer receivables, primarily consisting of customer margin loans collateralized by customer-owned securities, are stated net of allowance for credit losses. The Company reviews large customer accounts that do not comply with the Company's margin requirements on a case-by-case basis to determine the likelihood of collection and records an allowance for credit loss following that process. For small customer accounts that do not comply with the Company's margin requirements, the allowance for credit loss is generally recorded as the amount of unsecured or partially secured receivables.

The Company also periodically makes loans to financial advisors and other revenue producers as part of its hiring process. These loans are recorded as notes receivable on its consolidated balance sheet. Allowances are established on these loans if the employee is no longer associated with the Company and the loan has not been promptly repaid.

Legal and Regulatory Reserves

The Company records reserves related to legal and regulatory proceedings in accounts payable and other liabilities. The determination of the amounts of these reserves requires significant judgment on the part of management. In accordance with applicable accounting guidance, the Company establishes reserves for litigation and regulatory matters where available information indicates that it is probable a liability had been incurred and the Company can reasonably estimate the amount of that loss. When loss contingencies are not probable or cannot be reasonably estimated, the Company does not establish reserves.

When determining whether to record a reserve, management considers many factors including, but not limited to, the amount of the claim; the stage and forum of the proceeding, the sophistication of the claimant, the amount of the loss, if any, in the client's account and the possibility of wrongdoing, if any, on the part of an employee of the Company; the basis and validity of the claim; previous results in similar cases; and applicable legal precedents and case law. Each legal and regulatory proceeding is reviewed with counsel in each accounting period and the reserve is adjusted as deemed appropriate by management. Any change in the reserve amount is recorded in the results of that period. The assumptions of management in determining the estimates of reserves may be incorrect and the actual disposition of a legal or regulatory proceeding could be greater or less than the reserve amount.

Leases

Right-of-use ("ROU") assets and lease liabilities are initially recognized based on the present value of the future minimum lease payments over the lease term, excluding non-base rent components such as fixed common area maintenance costs and other fixed costs such as real estate taxes and insurance. The discount rates used in determining the present value of leases are the Company’s incremental borrowing rates, developed based upon each lease’s term. The lease term may include options to extend or terminate the lease when it is reasonably certain that the Company will exercise that option. For operating leases, the ROU assets also include any prepaid lease payments and initial direct costs incurred and are reduced by lease incentives. For these leases, lease expense is recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term if the ROU asset has not been impaired or abandoned.

Goodwill

The Company's goodwill resides in separate reporting units within its Wealth Management and Corporate/Other operating segments. Goodwill of a reporting unit is subject to at least an annual test for impairment to determine if the estimated fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. Goodwill of a reporting unit is required to be tested for impairment between

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

annual tests if an event occurs or circumstances change that would more likely than not reduce the fair value of a reporting unit below its carrying amount. Due to the volatility in the financial services sector and equity markets in general, determining whether an impairment of goodwill has occurred is increasingly difficult and requires management to exercise significant judgment.

Goodwill within the Corporate/Other operating segment largely relates to the Company’s acquisition of BondWave LLC, which closed on December 29, 2023. The Company's annual goodwill impairment analysis performed as of December 31, 2024 over the goodwill within the Private Client Division ("PCD") reporting unit, a separate reporting unit within Wealth Management, applied the same valuation methodologies with consistent inputs as that performed as of December 31, 2023.

In estimating the fair value of the reporting units, the Company uses traditional standard valuation methods, including the market comparable approach and income approach. The market comparable approach is based on comparisons of the subject company to public companies whose stocks are actively traded ("Price Multiples") or to similar companies engaged in an actual merger or acquisition ("Precedent Transactions"). As part of this process, multiples of value relative to financial variables, such as earnings, revenue, EBITDA or stockholders' equity, are developed and applied to the appropriate financial variables of the subject company to indicate its value. The income approach involves estimating the present value of the subject company's future cash flows by using projections of the cash flows that the business is expected to generate, and discounting these cash flows at a given rate of return ("Discounted Cash Flow" or "DCF"). Each of these standard valuation methodologies requires the use of management estimates and assumptions.

In its Price Multiples valuation analysis, the Company uses various operating metrics of comparable companies, including revenues, after-tax earnings, and EBITDA as well as price-to-book value ratios at a point in time. The Company analyzes prices paid in Precedent Transactions that are comparable to the business conducted in each of the reporting units. The DCF analysis includes the Company's assumptions regarding discount rate, growth rates of the reporting unit's revenues, expenses, EBITDA, and capital expenditures, adjusted for current economic conditions and expectations. The Company weighs each of the three valuation methods equally in its overall valuation. Given the subjectivity involved in selecting which valuation method to use, the corresponding weightings, and the input variables for use in the analyses, it is possible that a different valuation model and the selection of different input variables could produce a materially different estimate of the fair value of the respective reporting unit.

Intangible Assets

Intangible assets are primarily comprised of trademarks, trade names and an Internet domain name, carried on the balance sheet at $35.7 million. Indefinite intangible assets are subject to at least an annual test for impairment to determine if the estimated fair value is less than their carrying amount. The fair value of the trademarks and trade names was substantially in excess of their carrying value as of December 31, 2024. Defined-lived intangible assets are comprised of software licenses, developed technology and customer relationships. These intangible assets carried at $2.9 million are amortized over their estimated lives and are periodically evaluated for impairment whenever events or circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable from future undiscounted cash flows.

Share-Based Compensation Plans

As part of the compensation to employees and directors, the Company uses stock-based compensation, consisting of restricted stock and stock appreciation rights. In accordance with ASC Topic 718, "Compensation - Stock Compensation," the Company classifies the restricted stock awards as equity awards, which requires the compensation cost to be recognized in the consolidated income statements over the requisite service period of the award at grant date fair value and adjusted for actual forfeitures. The fair value of restricted stock awards is determined based on the grant date closing price of the Company's Class A non-voting common stock ("Class A Stock") adjusted for the present value of the dividend to be received upon vesting. The fair value of stock options is determined using the Black-Scholes model. Key assumptions used to estimate the fair value include the expected term and the expected volatility of the Company's Class A Stock over the term of the award, the risk-free interest rate over the expected term, and the Company's expected annual dividend yield. The Company classifies stock appreciation rights ("OARs") as liability awards, which requires the fair value to be remeasured through earnings at each reporting period until the award vests. The fair value of OARs is also determined using the Black-Scholes model at the end of each reporting period. The compensation cost is adjusted each reporting period for changes in fair value prorated for the portion of the requisite service period rendered.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Revenue Recognition

Brokerage

Customers' securities transactions are reported on a settlement date basis, which is generallyone business day after trade date for securities transactions. Related commission income and expense is recorded on a trade date basis.

Principal Transactions

Transactions in proprietary securities and related revenue and expenses are recorded on a trade date basis. Securities owned and securities sold but not yet purchased are reported at fair value generally based upon quoted prices. Realized and unrealized changes in fair value are recognized in principal transactions, net in the period in which the change occurs.

Investment Banking Fees

Advisory fees from mergers, acquisitions and restructuring transactions are recorded when services for the transactions are completed and income is reasonably determinable, generally as set forth under the terms of the engagement. Retainer fees and engagement fees are recognized ratably over the service period.

Underwriting fees are recorded when the transactions are completed. Transaction-related expenses, primarily consisting of legal, travel and other costs directly associated with the transaction, are deferred and recognized in the same period as the related investment banking transaction revenue. Underwriting revenues and the related expenses are presented gross on the consolidated income statements.

Interest

Interest revenue represents interest earned on margin debit balances, securities borrowed transactions, reverse repurchase agreements, fixed income securities, firm investments, and cash and cash equivalents. Interest revenue is recognized in the period earned based upon average or daily asset balances, contractual cash flows, and interest rates.

Asset Management

Asset management advisory fees are generally recognized over the period the related service is provided based on the account value at the valuation date per the respective asset management agreements. In certain circumstances, OAM is entitled to receive performance (or incentive) fees when the return on assets under management ("AUM") exceeds certain benchmark returns or other performance targets. Performance fees are generally based on investment performance over a 12-month period and are not subject to adjustment once the measurement period ends. Such fees are computed as of the fund's year-end when the measurement period ends and generally are recorded as earned in the fourth quarter of the Company's fiscal year. Asset management advisory fees and performance fees are included in advisory fees in the consolidated income statements. Assets under management are not included as assets of the Company.

Bank Deposit Sweep Income

Bank deposit sweep income consists of revenues earned from the Advantage Bank Deposit Program. Under this program, client funds are swept into deposit accounts at participating banks and are eligible for FDIC deposit insurance up to FDIC standard maximum deposit insurance amounts. The Company earns the fee paid on these deposits after administrative fees are paid to the administrator of the program. The fee earned in the period is recorded in bank deposit sweep income and the portion of interest credited to clients is recorded in interest expense in the consolidated income statements.

Balance Sheet

Cash and Cash Equivalents

The Company defines cash equivalents as highly liquid investments with original maturities of less than 90 days that are not held for sale in the ordinary course of business.

Receivables from / Payables to Brokers, Dealers and Clearing Organizations

Securities borrowed and securities loaned are carried at the amounts of cash collateral advanced or received. Securities borrowed transactions require the Company to deposit cash or other collateral with the lender. The Company receives cash or

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

collateral in an amount generally in excess of the market value of securities loaned. The Company monitors the market value of securities borrowed and loaned on a daily basis and may require counterparties to deposit additional collateral or return collateral pledged, when appropriate.

Securities failed to deliver and receive represent the contract value of securities which have not been delivered or received, respectively, by settlement date.

Receivables from / Payables to Customers

Receivables from and payables to customers include balances arising from customer securities and margin transactions. Receivables from customers are recorded when margin loans are extended to customers and are recorded on a settlement date basis. Payables to customers are recorded when customers deposit cash into their accounts and are recorded on a settlement date basis.

Securities Purchased under Agreements to Resell and Securities Sold under Agreements to Repurchase

Reverse repurchase agreements and securities sold under agreements to repurchase ("repurchase agreements") are treated as collateralized financing transactions and are recorded at their contractual amounts plus accrued interest. The resulting interest income and expense for these arrangements are included in interest income and interest expense in the consolidated income statements. The Company presents the reverse repurchase and repurchase transactions on a net-by-counterparty basis when the specific offsetting requirements are satisfied.

Notes Receivable

Notes receivable primarily represent recruiting and retention payments generally in the form of upfront loans to financial advisors and key revenue producers as part of the Company's overall growth strategy. These notes generally amortize over a service period of 3 to 9 years from the initial date of the note or based on productivity levels of employees. All such notes are contingent on the employees' continued employment with the Company. The unforgiven portion of the notes becomes due on demand in the event the employee departs during the service period. Amortization of notes receivable is included in the consolidated income statements in compensation and related expenses.

Furniture, Equipment and Leasehold Improvements

Furniture, equipment and leasehold improvements are stated at cost less accumulated depreciation. Depreciation of furniture, fixtures, and equipment is provided on a straight-line basis generally over 3 to 7 years. Leasehold improvements are amortized on a straight-line basis over the shorter of the life of the improvement or the remaining term of the lease.

Drafts Payable

Drafts payable represent amounts drawn by the Company against a bank.

Bank Call Loans

Bank call loans are generally payable on demand and bear interest at various rates, and such loans are collateralized by firm and/or customer's margin securities.

Foreign Currency Translations

Foreign currency balances have been translated into U.S. dollars as follows: monetary assets and liabilities at exchange rates prevailing at period end; revenue and expenses at average rates for the period; and gains or losses resulting from translating foreign currency financial statements, net of related tax effects, are reflected in accumulated other comprehensive income in the consolidated balance sheets. The functional currency of the overseas operations is the local currency in each location except for Oppenheimer Europe Ltd. and Oppenheimer Investments Asia Limited which have the U.S. dollar as their functional currency.

Income Taxes

The Company accounts for income taxes under the asset and liability method, which requires the recognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of events that have been included in the financial statements.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Under this method, deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined on the basis of the differences between the financial statement and tax bases of assets and liabilities using enacted tax rates in effect for the year in which the differences are expected to reverse. The effect of a change in tax rates on deferred tax assets and liabilities is recognized in income in the period that includes the enactment date.

The Company recognizes deferred tax assets to the extent it believes these assets are more likely than not to be realized. In making such a determination, the Company considers all available positive and negative evidence, including future reversals of existing taxable temporary differences, projected future taxable income, tax planning strategies, and the results of recent operations.

The Company records uncertain tax positions on the basis of a two-step process whereby it determines whether it is more likely than not that the tax positions will be sustained on the basis of the technical merits of the position and for those tax positions that meet the more-likely-than-not recognition threshold, the Company recognizes the largest amount of tax benefit that is more than 50 percent likely to be realized upon ultimate settlement with the related tax authority.

The Company records interest and penalties accruing on unrecognized tax benefits in pre-tax income as interest expense and other expense, respectively, in its consolidated income statements.

The Company permanently reinvests eligible earnings of its foreign subsidiaries and, accordingly, does not accrue any U.S. income taxes that would arise if such earnings were repatriated.

OPY Acquisition Corp. I

On October 26, 2021, OPY Acquisition Corp. I (“OHAA”), a special purpose acquisition company, consummated its $126.5 million initial public offering (the “OHAA IPO”). OPY Acquisition LLC I (the “Sponsor”), a Delaware series limited liability company and the Company’s subsidiary, was the sponsor of and consolidated OHAA.

Upon IPO completion, funds totaling $127.8 million, including proceeds from the OHAA IPO of $126.5 million and $1.3 million of investment from the Sponsor, were held in a trust account until the earlier of (i) the completion of a Business Combination or (ii)ten business days after April 29, 2023,18 months from the closing of the OHAA IPO (“Combination Period”), pursuant to OHAA's certificate of incorporation.

On October 26, 2023, OHAA’s stockholders approved an amendment to its certificate of incorporation to extend the deadline by which it must complete its initial business combination from October 30, 2023 to June 30, 2024 on a month-to-month basis.

In the fourth quarter of 2023, after careful consideration of the special purpose acquisition company market and after having completed an extensive search, OHAA determined it would be unable to deliver and fund a high quality value enhancing transaction to stockholders despite the extension. Therefore, on December 18, 2023, OHAA determined not to further extend the term it had to complete an initial business combination and instead announced its intention to dissolve and liquidate. On December 28, 2023, all OHAA Class A ordinary shares were cancelled with shareholders receiving their respective share redemption amounts. Accordingly, there were no “Redeemable non-controlling interests” or restricted cash balances associated with the publicly held OHAA Class A ordinary shares recorded on the Company’s consolidated balance sheet as of December 31, 2023. OHAA was dissolved in March 2024.

Oppenheimer Principal Investments LLC

Oppenheimer Principal Investments LLC ("OPI") is a Delaware special purpose "Series" limited liability company formed in December 2020 and designed to retain and reward talented employees of the Company, primarily in connection with the deployment of Company capital into successful private market investments, and also in connection with the Company's receipt of non-cash compensation from investment banking assignments. OPI is designed to promote alignment of Company, client and employee interests as they relate to profitable investment opportunities. This program acts as an incentive for senior employees to identify attractive private investments for the Company and its clients, and as a retention tool for key employees of the Company. OPI treats its members as partners for tax purposes generally and with respect to the separate Series formed to participate in (i) the incentive fees generated by successful client investments in the Company's Private Market Opportunities program, or (ii) principal investments made by the Company or a portion of the gains thereon, either through the outright

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

purchase of an investment or consideration earned in lieu of an investment banking fee or other transaction fee. Employees who become members of a Series receive a "profit interest", as that term is used in Internal Revenue Service ("IRS") regulations, and receive an allocation of capital appreciation of the investment held by the particular Series that exceeds a threshold amount established for each Series. Participating employees are also subject to vesting and forfeiture requirements for each Series investment. Vested profit interests are accounted for as compensation expense under FASB Topic ASC 710. Additionally, the Company’s policy is to consolidate those entities where it owns the majority voting interests. The Company owns the majority voting interest of OPI through Oppenheimer Alternative Investment Management (“OAIM”), the managing member of OPI and a subsidiary of OAM. Pursuant to the Company’s policy for consolidation, the Company consolidates OPI.

3. Acquisitions

On December 29, 2023, the Company acquired 100% of the membership interests of BondWave LLC, a cloud-based financial markets software as a service provider that offers institutions active in fixed income markets with an integrated suite of portfolio analytics, transaction analytics and proprietary data solutions. Under the terms of the agreement, the Company paid approximately $3.6 million on closing, with the potential for additional contingent payments to be made within 18 months after the closing date. The Company allocated $4.3 million of the purchase price to goodwill, $2.2 million to definite-lived intangible assets, $625,000 to cash acquired and the remainder to other assets acquired and liabilities assumed as part of the acquisition accounted under ASC 805,“Business Combinations” ("ASC 805"). The goodwill, which has been allocated to the “Corporate/Other” segment, primarily reflects theexpected synergies of combining the scalable software platform with Oppenheimer’s broader client base.

On November 12, 2024, BondWave LLC acquired substantially all the assets of Bitvore Corp.’s (“Bitvore”) municipal bond data analytics business for $2.35 million in cash. Bitvore’s platform uses machine learning and artificial intelligence to provide municipal bond data analysis, news and information to financial institutions. The Company accounted for the acquisition under the acquisition method of accounting in accordance with ASC 805. The goodwill associated with this acquisition has been allocated to the “Corporate/Other” segment and reflects expected synergies when coupled with BondWave LLC’s existing platform and client base.

4. Financial Instruments - Credit Losses

Under ASC 326, "Financial Instruments - Credit Losses", the Company can elect to use an approach to measure the allowance for credit losses using the fair value of collateral where the borrower is required to, and reasonably expected to, continually adjust and replenish the amount of collateral securing the instrument to reflect changes in the fair value of such collateral. The Company has elected to use this approach for securities borrowed, margin loans, and reverse repurchase agreements. No material historical losses have been reported on these assets. See note 9 for details.

As of December 31, 2024, the Company had $67.9 million of notes receivable ($62.6 million as of December 31, 2023). Notes receivable represent recruiting and retention payments generally in the form of upfront loans to financial advisors and key revenue producers as part of the Company's overall growth strategy. These notes generally amortize over a service period of 3 to 9 years from the initial date of the note or based on productivity levels of employees. All such notes are contingent on the employees' continued employment with the Company. The unforgiven portion of the notes becomes due on demand in the event the employee departs during the service period. At that point, any uncollected portion of the notes is reclassified into a defaulted notes category.

The allowance for uncollectibles is a valuation account that is deducted from the amortized cost basis of the defaulted notes balance to present the net amount expected to be collected. Balances are charged-off against the allowance when management deems the amount to be uncollectible.

The Company reserves 100% of the uncollected balance of defaulted notes which arefive years and older and applies an expected loss rate to the remaining balance. The expected loss rate is based on historical collection rates of defaulted notes. The expected loss rate is adjusted for changes in environmental and market conditions such as changes in unemployment rates, changes in interest rates and/or other relevant factors. For the year ended December 31, 2024, no adjustments were made to the expected loss rates. The Company will continuously monitor the effect of these factors on the expected loss rate and adjust it as necessary.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

The allowance is measured on a pool basis as the Company has determined that the entire defaulted portion of notes receivable has similar risk characteristics.

As of December 31, 2024, the balance of defaulted notes was $5.0 million and the allowance for uncollectibles was $2.8 million. The allowance for uncollectibles consisted of $1.3 million related to defaulted notes balances (five years and older) and $1.5 million (under five years).

The following table presents the disaggregation of defaulted notes by year of default as of December 31, 2024:

The following table presents activity in the allowance for uncollectibles of defaulted notes for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023:

5. Leases

The Company has operating leases for office space and equipment expiring at various dates through 2034. The Company leases its corporate headquarters at 85 Broad Street, New York, New York which houses its executive management team and many administrative functions for the Company as well as its research, trading, investment banking, and asset management divisions and an office in Troy, Michigan, which among other things, houses its payroll and human resources departments. In addition, the Company has 88 retail branch offices in the United States as well as offices in London, England, St. Helier, Isle of Jersey, Geneva, Switzerland, Tel Aviv, Israel and Hong Kong, China.

The Company is constantly assessing its needs for office space and, on a rolling basis, has many leases that expire in any given year. Substantially all of the leases are held by the Company's subsidiary, Viner Finance Inc., which is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Company.

Leases with an initial term of 12 months or less are not recorded on the balance sheet; the Company recognizes lease expense for these leases on a straight-line basis over the lease term. Most leases include an option to renew and the exercise of lease renewal options is at the Company's sole discretion. The Company did not include the renewal options as part of the right of use assets and liabilities. The depreciable life of assets and leasehold improvements is limited by the expected lease term. The Company's lease agreements do not contain any material residual value guarantees or material restrictive covenants.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

As of December 31, 2024, the Company had right-of-use operating lease assets of $133.8 million (net of accumulated amortization of $118.3 million) which are comprised of real estate leases of $131.4 million (net of accumulated amortization of $115.7 million) and equipment leases of $2.4 million (net of accumulated amortization of $2.6 million). As of December 31, 2024, the Company had operating lease liabilities of $173.3 million which are comprised of real estate lease liabilities of $171.0 million and equipment lease liabilities of $2.3 million. The Company had no finance leases as of December 31, 2024.

As most of the Company's leases do not provide an implicit rate, the Company uses the incremental borrowing rate based on the information available at commencement date in determining the present value of lease payments.

The following table presents the weighted average lease term and weighted average discount rate for the Company's operating leases as of December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, respectively:

The following table presents operating lease costs recognized for the years ended December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, respectively, which are included in occupancy and equipment costs on the consolidated income statements:

The maturities of lease liabilities as of December 31, 2024 are as follows:

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

As of December 31, 2024, the Company had $6.9 million of additional operating leases that have not yet commenced. ($5.8 million as of December 31, 2023).

6. Revenue from contracts with customers

Revenue from contracts with customers is recognized when, or as, the Company satisfies its performance obligations by transferring the promised goods or services to customers. A good or service is transferred to a customer when, or as, the customer obtains control of that good or service. A performance obligation may be satisfied over time or at a point in time. Revenue from a performance obligation satisfied over time is recognized by measuring the Company's progress in satisfying the performance obligation in a manner that depicts the transfer of the goods or services to the customer. Revenue from a performance obligation satisfied at a point in time is recognized at the point in time that the Company determines the customer obtains control over the promised good or service.

The amount of revenue recognized reflects the consideration to which the Company expects to be entitled in exchange for those promised goods or services (i.e., the "transaction price"). In determining the transaction price, the Company considers multiple factors, including the effects of variable consideration. Variable consideration is included in the transaction price only to the extent it is probable that a significant reversal in the amount of cumulative revenue recognized will not occur when the uncertainties with respect to the amount are resolved. In determining when to include variable consideration in the transaction price, the Company considers the range of possible outcomes, the predictive value of its past experiences, the time period during which uncertainties are expected to be resolved and the amount of consideration that is susceptible to factors outside of the Company's influence, such as market volatility or the judgment and actions of third parties.

The Company earns revenue from contracts with customers and other sources (principal transactions, interest and other). The following provides detailed information on the recognition of the Company's revenue from contracts with customers:

Commissions

Commissions from Sales and Trading — The Company earns commission revenue by executing, settling and clearing transactions with clients primarily in exchange-traded and over-the-counter corporate equity and debt securities, money market instruments and exchange-traded options and futures contracts. A substantial portion of the Company's revenue is derived from commissions from private clients through accounts with transaction-based pricing. Trade execution and clearing services, when provided together, represent a single performance obligation as the services are not separately identifiable in the context of the contract. Commission revenue associated with combined trade execution and clearing services, as well as trade execution services on a standalone basis, is recognized at a point in time on trade date when the performance obligation is satisfied.

Commission revenue is generally paid on settlement date, which is generallyone business day after trade date. The Company records a receivable on the trade date and receives a payment on the settlement date.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Mutual Fund Income— The Company earns mutual fund income for sales and distribution of mutual fund shares, which consists of a fixed fee amount and a variable amount. The Company recognizes mutual fund income at a point in time on the trade date when the performance obligation is satisfied which is when the mutual fund interest is sold to the investor. The ongoing distribution fees for distributing investment products from mutual fund companies are generally considered variable consideration because they are based on the value of AUM and are uncertain on trade date. The Company recognizes distribution fees over the investment period as the amounts become known and the portion recognized in the current period may relate to distribution services performed in prior periods. Mutual fund income is generally received within 90 days.

Advisory Fees

The Company earns management and performance (or incentive) fees in connection with the advisory and asset management services it provides to various types of funds, asset-based programs and investment vehicles through its subsidiaries. Management fees are generally based on the account value at the valuation date per the respective asset management agreements and are recognized over time as the customer receives the benefits of the services evenly throughout the term of the contract. Performance fees are recognized when the return on client AUM exceeds a specified benchmark return or other performance targets over a 12-month measurement period are met. Performance fees are considered variable as they are subject to fluctuation and/or are contingent on a future event over the measurement period and are not subject to adjustment once the measurement period ends. Such fees are computed as of the fund's year-end when the measurement period ends and generally are recorded as earned in the fourth quarter of the Company's fiscal year. Both management and performance fees are generally received within 90 days.

Investment Banking

The Company earns underwriting revenues by providing capital raising solutions for corporate clients through initial public offerings, follow-on offerings, equity-linked offerings, private investments in public entities, and private placements. Underwriting revenues are recognized at a point in time on trade date, as the client obtains the control and benefit of the capital markets offering at that time. These fees are generally received within 90 days after the transactions are completed. Transaction-related expenses, primarily consisting of legal, travel and other costs directly associated with the transaction, are deferred and recognized in the same period as the related investment banking transaction revenue. Underwriting revenues and related expenses are presented gross on the consolidated income statements.

Revenue from financial advisory services includes fees generated in connection with mergers, acquisitions and restructuring transactions. Such revenue and fees are primarily recorded at a point in time when services for the performance obligations have been completed and income is reasonably determinable, generally as set forth under the terms of the engagement. Payment for advisory services is generally due upon a completion of the transaction or milestone. Retainer fees and fees earned from certain advisory services are recognized ratably over the service period as the customer receives the benefit of the services throughout the term of the contracts, and such fees are collected based on the terms of the contracts.

Bank Deposit Sweep Income

Bank deposit sweep income consists of revenue earned from the FDIC-insured bank deposit program. Under this program, client funds are swept into deposit accounts at participating banks and are eligible for FDIC deposit insurance up to FDIC standard maximum deposit insurance amounts. Fees are earned over time and are generally received within 30 days.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Disaggregation of Revenue

The following presents the Company's revenue from contracts with customers disaggregated by major business activity and other sources of revenue for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023:

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Contract Assets and Liabilities

The timing of the Company's revenue recognition may differ from the timing of payment by its customers. The Company records contract assets when payment is due from a client conditioned on future performance or the occurrence of other events. Alternatively, when payment precedes the provision of the related services, the Company records deferred revenue until the performance obligations are satisfied.

The Company had receivables related to revenue from contracts with customers of $46.2 million and $39.9 million at December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, respectively. The Company had no significant impairments related to these receivables during the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023.

Deferred revenue relates to IRA fees received annually in advance on customers' IRA accounts managed by the Company, software license fees received upfront from customers and retainer fees and other fees earned from certain advisory transactions where the performance obligations have not yet been satisfied. Total deferred revenue was $930,000 and $1,118,000 for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively.

The following presents the Company's receivables and deferred revenue balances from contracts with customers, which are included in other assets and other liabilities, respectively, on the consolidated balance sheet:

(1) Commission earned but not yet received.

(2) Mutual fund and insurance income earned but not yet received.

(3) Management and performance fees earned but not yet received.

(4) Fees earned from FDIC-insured bank deposit program but not yet received.

(5) Underwriting revenue and advisory fees earned but not yet received.

(6) Retainer fees and fees received from certain advisory transactions where the performance obligations have not

yet been satisfied.

(7) Software license fees received upfront from customers and recognized ratably over the contract period.

Contract Costs

The Company incurs incremental transaction-related costs to obtain and/or fulfill contracts associated with investment banking and advisory engagements where the revenue is recognized at a point in time and the costs are determined to be recoverable. As

of December 31, 2024, these contract costs were $2.0 million ($1.9 million as of December 31, 2023). There were no significant charges recognized in relation to these costs for year ended December 31, 2024.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

7. Receivable from and payable to brokers, dealers and clearing organizations

(1)As of December 31, 2024, approximately $15.4 million of this balance represents a receivable for trades executed, but not yet settled.

(2) As of December 31, 2023, approximately $48.4 million of this balance represents a payable for trades executed, but not yet settled.

8. Fair value measurements

Securities owned, securities sold but not yet purchased, investments, derivative contracts and certain loans are carried at fair value with changes in fair value recognized in earnings each period. Fair value is defined as the price that would be received to sell an asset, or paid to transfer a liability, in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. A description of the valuation techniques applied and inputs used in measuring the fair value of the Company’s financial instruments, as well as the general classification of such instruments pursuant to the valuation hierarchy, are as follows:

Securities

The Company determines the fair value of securities (both long and short) primarily based on pricing sources with reasonable levels of price transparency. Where unadjusted quoted prices for identical assets or liabilities are available in an active market, we classify the securities within Level 1 of the valuation hierarchy. Level 1 securities include U.S. Treasury securities, money market funds and corporate equities.

If quoted market prices are unavailable, fair values are generally determined using pricing models which incorporate market observable inputs, such as benchmark yields, recently executed transaction prices, issuer spreads, reported trades, bids, offers and other reference data. Examples of such instruments, which are typically classified within Level 2 of the valuation hierarchy, include U.S. Agency securities, sovereign obligations, corporate debt and other obligations, mortgage and other asset-backed securities, municipal obligations, money market funds and convertible bonds.

In limited situations where there is reduced activity or less observability around inputs to the valuation, we classify those securities in Level 3 of the valuation hierarchy. The Company has valued the ARS securities owned at the tender offer price and categorized them in Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy due to the illiquid nature of the securities and the period of time since the last tender offer. As of December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, the Company had $2.7 million and $2.7 million respectively, of auction rate securities in Level 3 assets.

Derivative financial instruments

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

The Company classifies exchange-traded derivative financial instruments such as futures contracts in Level 1 of the valuation hierarchy. Some of our derivative positions, such as to-be-announced securities, are valued using models that use observable market parameters, and we classify them in Level 2 of the valuation hierarchy.

Loans

The fair value of loans is estimated using recently executed transactions and current price quotations, which are usually observable. When observable pricing information is not available, fair value is generally determined based on cash flow models using discounted cash flow models, competitor comparable data and other valuation metrics.

Other

The Company owns an equity method investment in a financial technologies firm. The Company elected the fair value option for this investment and it is included in other assets on the consolidated balance sheet. The Company determined the fair value of the investment based on an implied market-multiple approach and observable market data, including comparable company transactions. As of December 31, 2024, the fair value of the investment was $5.9 million and was categorized in Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy.

Trade claims are categorized in Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy due to the illiquid nature of the claims and the period of time since the executed prices. As of December 31, 2024, Company had $2.7 million of trade claims in level 3 assets.

Investments

Financial instruments measured at Net Asset Value ("NAV")

In its role as general partner in certain hedge funds and private equity funds, the Company, through its subsidiaries, holds direct investments in such funds. There are no readily available market quotations for these investments. The Company records these investments within other assets and uses the net asset value of the underlying fund as a basis for estimating the fair value of its investment unless another method provides a better indicator of fair value. Changes in the fair value of these investments are reflected within other income in the consolidated financial statements.

The following table provides information about the Company's investments in Company-sponsored funds as of December 31, 2024:

(1) Hedge funds represent investments in credit driven strategies.

(2) Private equity funds include portfolios focused on technology, infrastructure, real estate, natural resources and specific co- investment opportunities.

The following table provides information about the Company's investments in Company-sponsored funds as of December 31, 2023:

(1) Hedge funds represent investments in credit driven strategies.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(2) Includes private equity funds and private equity fund of funds with diversified portfolios, focusing on but not

limited to technology companies, venture capital and global natural resources.

Assets and Liabilities Measured at Fair Value

The Company's assets and liabilities, recorded at fair value on a recurring basis, as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, have been categorized based upon the above fair value hierarchy as follows:

Assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis as of December 31, 2024

(1) Included in other assets on the consolidated balance sheet.

(2) Included in receivable/payable to brokers, dealers and clearing organizations.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis as of December 31, 2023

(1) Included in other assets on the consolidated balance sheet.

(2) Included in receivable/payable to brokers, dealers and clearing organizations.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

The following tables present changes in Level 3 assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023:

(1) Represents auction rate securities that failed in the auction rate market.

(2) Included in principal transactions in the consolidated income statement.

(1) Represents auction rate securities that failed in the auction rate market.

(2) Included in principal transactions in the consolidated income statement.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Financial Instruments Not Measured at Fair Value

The table below presents the carrying value, fair value and fair value hierarchy category of certain financial instruments that are not measured at fair value on the consolidated balance sheets. The table below excludes non-financial assets and liabilities (e.g., furniture, equipment and leasehold improvements and accrued compensation).

The carrying value of financial instruments not measured at fair value categorized in the fair value hierarchy as Level 1 or Level 2 (e.g., cash and receivables from customers) approximates fair value because of the relatively short-term nature of the underlying assets. The fair value of the Company's senior secured notes, categorized in Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy, is based on quoted prices from the market in which the notes trade.

Assets and liabilities not measured at fair value as of December 31, 2024

(1) Included within other assets on the consolidated balance sheet.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Assets and liabilities not measured at fair value as of December 31, 2023

(1) Included within other assets on the consolidated balance sheet.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities

The Company transacts, on a limited basis, in exchange traded and over-the-counter derivatives for both asset and liability management as well as for trading and investment purposes. Risks managed using derivative instruments include interest rate risk and, to a lesser extent, foreign exchange risk. All derivative instruments are measured at fair value and are recognized as either assets or liabilities on the consolidated balance sheet.

Foreign exchange hedges

From time to time, the Company also utilizes forward and options contracts to hedge the foreign currency risk associated with compensation obligations to Oppenheimer Israel (OPCO) Ltd. employees denominated in New Israeli Shekel ("NIS"). Such hedges have not been designated as accounting hedges. Any unrealized gains and losses on foreign exchange forward contracts are recorded in other assets or other liabilities on the consolidated balance sheet and other income in the consolidated income statement.

Derivatives used for trading and investment purposes

Futures contracts represent commitments to purchase or sell securities or other commodities at a future date and at a specified price. Market risk exists with respect to these instruments. Notional or contractual amounts are used to express the volume of these transactions and do not represent the amounts potentially subject to market risk. The Company uses futures contracts, including U.S. Treasury notes, Federal Funds, General Collateral futures and Eurodollar contracts primarily as an economic hedge of interest rate risk associated with government trading activities. Unrealized gains and losses on futures contracts are recorded on the consolidated balance sheet in payable to brokers, dealers and clearing organizations and in the consolidated income statement as principal transactions revenue, net.

To-be-announced securities

The Company also transacts in pass-through mortgage-backed securities eligible to be sold in the TBA market as economic hedges against mortgage-backed securities that it owns or has sold but not yet purchased. TBAs provide for the forward or delayed delivery of the underlying instrument with settlement up to 180 days. The contractual or notional amounts related to these financial instruments reflect the volume of activity and do not reflect the amounts at risk. Net unrealized gains and losses on TBAs are recorded on the consolidated balance sheet in receivable from brokers, dealers and clearing organizations or payable to brokers, dealers and clearing organizations and in the consolidated income statement as principal transactions revenue, net.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

The notional amounts and fair values of the Company's derivatives as of December 31, 2024 and 2023 by product were as follows:

(1) See "Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities" above for a description of derivative financial instruments.

Such derivative instruments are not subject to master netting agreements, thus the related amounts are not offset.

(1) See "Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities" above for a description of derivative financial instruments.

Such derivative instruments are not subject to master netting agreements, thus the related amounts are not offset.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

The following table presents the location and fair value amounts of the Company's derivative instruments and their effect in the consolidated income statements for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023:

9. Collateralized transactions

The Company enters into collateralized borrowing and lending transactions in order to meet customers' needs and earn interest rate spreads, obtain securities for settlement and finance trading inventory positions. Under these transactions, the Company either receives or provides collateral, including U.S. Government and Agency, asset-backed, corporate debt, equity, and non-U.S. Government and Agency securities.

The Company obtains short-term borrowings primarily through bank call loans. Bank call loans are generally payable on demand and bear interest at various rates. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, the outstanding balance of bank call loans was $252.1 million and 0, respectively. As of December 31, 2024, such loans with commercial banks were collateralized by the Company's securities and margin account securities with market values of approximately $43.0 million and $238.4 million, respectively.

As of December 31, 2024, the Company had approximately $1.9 billion of customer securities under customer margin loans that are available to be pledged, of which the Company has re-pledged approximately $187.5 million under securities loan agreements.

As of December 31, 2024, the Company had pledged $228.3 million of customer securities directly with the Options Clearing Corporation to secure obligations and margin requirements under option contracts written by customers.

As of December 31, 2024, the Company hadno outstanding letters of credit.

The Company enters into reverse repurchase agreements, repurchase agreements, securities borrowed and securities loaned transactions to, among other things, acquire securities to cover short positions and settle other securities obligations, to accommodate customers' needs and to finance the Company's inventory positions. Except as described below, repurchase and reverse repurchase agreements, principally involving U.S. Government and Agency securities, are carried at amounts at which the securities subsequently will be resold or reacquired as specified in the respective agreements and include accrued interest.

Repurchase agreements and reverse repurchase agreements are presented on a net-by-counterparty basis, when the repurchase agreements and reverse repurchase agreements are executed with the same counterparty, have the same explicit settlement date, are executed in accordance with a master netting arrangement, the securities underlying the repurchase agreements and reverse repurchase agreements exist in "book entry" form and certain other requirements are met.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

The following table presents a disaggregation of the gross obligation by the class of collateral pledged and the remaining contractual maturity of the repurchase agreements and securities loaned transactions as of December 31, 2024:

The following tables present the gross amounts and the offsetting amounts of reverse repurchase agreements, repurchase agreements, securities borrowed and securities loaned transactions as of December 31, 2024 and 2023:

(1) Included in receivable from brokers, dealers and clearing organizations on the consolidated balance sheet.

(2) Included in payable to brokers, dealers and clearing organizations on the consolidated balance sheet.

1. Included in receivable from brokers, dealers and clearing organizations on the consolidated balance sheet.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(2) Included in payable to brokers, dealers and clearing organizations on the consolidated balance sheet.

The Company receives collateral in connection with securities borrowed and reverse repurchase agreement transactions and customer margin loans. Under many agreements, the Company is permitted to sell or re-pledge the securities received (e.g., use the securities to enter into securities lending transactions, or deliver to counterparties to cover short positions). As of December 31, 2024, the fair value of securities received as collateral under securities borrowed transactions and reverse repurchase agreements was $131.7 million ($151.9 million as of December 31, 2023) and $68.1 million ($8.8 million as of December 31, 2023), respectively, of which the Company has sold and re-pledged approximately $39.2 million ($61.5 million as of December 31, 2023) under securities loaned transactions and $68.1 million under repurchase agreements ($8.8 million as of December 31, 2023).

The Company pledges certain of its securities owned for securities lending and repurchase agreements and to collateralize bank call loan transactions. The carrying value of pledged securities owned that can be sold or re-pledged by the counterparty was $1.0 billion, as presented on the face of the consolidated balance sheet as of December 31, 2024 ($689.4 million as of December 31, 2023).

The Company manages credit exposure arising from repurchase and reverse repurchase agreements by, in appropriate circumstances, entering into master netting agreements and collateral arrangements with counterparties that provide the Company, in the event of a customer default, the right to liquidate securities and the right to offset a counterparty's rights and obligations. The Company manages market risk of repurchase agreements and securities loaned by monitoring the market value of collateral held and the market value of securities receivable from others. It is the Company's policy to request and obtain additional collateral when exposure to loss exists. In the event the counterparty is unable to meet its contractual obligation to return the securities, the Company may be exposed to off-balance sheet risk of acquiring securities at prevailing market prices.

Credit Concentrations

Credit concentrations may arise from trading, investing, underwriting and financing activities and may be impacted by changes in economic, industry or political factors. In the normal course of business, the Company may be exposed to credit risk in the event customers, counterparties including other brokers and dealers, issuers, banks, depositories or clearing organizations are unable to fulfill their contractual obligations. The Company seeks to mitigate these risks by actively monitoring exposures and obtaining collateral as deemed appropriate. Included in receivable from brokers, dealers and clearing organizations as of December 31, 2024 were receivables from three major U.S. broker-dealers totaling approximately $82.9 million. Included in receivable from customers as of December 31, 2024 were fully secured margin loans from ourtwo largest customer accounts totaling approximately $666.1 million, comprising 52% of total margin loans.

The Company is obligated to settle transactions with brokers and other financial institutions even if its clients fail to meet their obligations to the Company. Clients are required to complete their transactions on the settlement date, generallyone business day after the trade date. If clients do not fulfill their contractual obligations, the Company may incur losses. The Company has clearing/participating arrangements with the National Securities Clearing Corporation, the Fixed Income Clearing Corporation ("FICC"), the Mortgage-Backed Securities Division (a division of FICC), the Options Clearing Corporation and others. With respect to its business in reverse repurchase and repurchase agreements, substantially all open contracts as of December 31, 2024 are with the FICC. In addition, the Company clears its non-U.S. international equities business carried on by Oppenheimer Europe Ltd. through Global Prime Partners, Ltd., a global clearing financial institution located in the United Kingdom. The clearing organizations have the right to charge the Company for losses that result from a client's failure to fulfill its contractual obligations. Accordingly, the Company has credit exposures with these clearing brokers. The clearing brokers can re-

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

hypothecate the securities held on behalf of the Company. As the right to charge the Company has no maximum amount and applies to all trades executed through the clearing brokers, the Company believes there is no maximum amount assignable to this right. As of December 31, 2024, the Company had recorded no liabilities with regard to this right. The Company's policy is to monitor the credit standing of the clearing brokers and banks with which it conducts business.

10. Variable interest entities ("VIEs")

The Company's policy is to consolidate all subsidiaries in which it has a controlling financial interest, as well as any VIEs where the Company is deemed to be the primary beneficiary, when it has the power to make the decisions that most significantly affect the economic performance of the VIE and has the obligation to absorb significant losses or the right to receive benefits that could potentially be significant to the VIE.

The Company serves as general partner of hedge funds and private equity funds that were established for the purpose of providing alternative investments to both its institutional and qualified retail clients. The Company's investment in and additional capital commitments to these hedge funds and private equity funds are considered variable interests. The Company's additional capital commitments are subject to call at a later date and are limited to the amount committed.

The Company assesses whether it is the primary beneficiary of the hedge funds and private equity funds in which it holds a variable interest in the form of general and limited partner interests. In each instance, the Company has determined that it is not the primary beneficiary and therefore need not consolidate the hedge funds or private equity funds. The subsidiaries' general and limited partnership interests and additional capital commitments represent its maximum exposure to loss. The subsidiaries' general partnership and limited partnership interests are included in other assets on the consolidated balance sheet.

In addition, the Company previously served as general partner of Oppenheimer Acquisition LLC I and Oppenheimer Acquisition LLC II (the "Sponsors"). They were sponsors oftwo special purpose acquisition companies, OHAA and Oppenheimer Acquisition Corp. II (the "SPACs”). Both the Sponsors and the SPACs have been liquidated. See note 2 for further details.

The following table sets forth the total assets and liabilities of VIEs consolidated on our consolidated balance sheet:

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

11. Furniture, equipment and leasehold improvements

Depreciation and amortization expense, included in occupancy and equipment costs in the consolidated income statements was $10.8 million, $9.9 million and $7.6 million for the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

12. Bank call loans

Bank call loans, primarily payable on demand, bear interest at various rates. Details of the bank call loans are as follows:

Interest expense for the year ended December 31, 2024 on bank call loans was $9.9 million ($2.9 million in 2023 and $1.8 million in 2022).

13. Long-term debt

5.50% Senior Secured Notes due 2025 (the "Notes")

On September 22, 2020, in a private offering, the Company issued $125.0 million aggregate principal amount of 5.50% Senior Secured Notes due 2025 (the "Unregistered Notes") under an indenture at an issue price of 100% of the principal amount. The Company used the net proceeds from the offering of the Unregistered Notes, along with cash on hand, to redeem in full our 6.75% Senior Secured Notes due July 1, 2022 (the "Old Notes") in the principal amount of $150.0 million (the Company held $1.4 million in treasury for a net outstanding amount of $148.6 million), and pay all related fees and expenses in relation thereto.

On November 23, 2020, we completed an exchange offer in which we exchanged 99.8% of the Unregistered Notes for a like principal amount of notes (the "Notes") with identical terms, except that such new notes have been registered under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended (the "Securities Act"). We did not receive any proceeds in the exchange offer. The Notes had a stated maturity of October 1, 2025 and bore interest at a rate of 5.50% per annum, payable semiannually on April 1st and October 1st, respectively, of each year.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

On September 19, 2024, the Company issued a notice of redemption to the holders of its Notes stating that it intended to redeem all of the $113.05 million aggregate principal amount of the Notes outstanding on October 10, 2024. The Company had previously repurchased and retired $11.95 million of the Notes through open market purchases completed in 2022 and 2023. On October 10, 2024, the Company completed its redemption of all of the $113.05 million aggregate principal amount of the Notes outstanding at a redemption price equal to 100% of the principal amount of the Notes redeemed, plus accrued and unpaid interest.

Interest expense on the Notes for the year ended December 31, 2024 was $4.8 million ($6.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2023). Interest paid on the Notes for the year ended December 31, 2024 was $4.8 million ($6.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2023).

14. Stockholders' Equity

The Company's authorized shares consist of (a)50,000,000 shares of Preferred Stock, par value $0.001 per share; (b)50,000,000 shares of Class A Stock, par value $0.001 per share; and (c)99,665 shares of Class B Stock, par value $0.001 per share. No Preferred Stock has been issued.99,665 shares of Class B Stock have been issued and are outstanding.

The Class A Stock and the Class B Stock are equal in all respects except that the Class A Stock is non-voting.

The following table reflects changes in the number of shares of Class A Stock outstanding for the years indicated:

Stock buy-back

On February 28, 2022, the Company announced that its Board of Directors approved a share repurchase program that authorizes the Company to purchase up to 518,000 shares of the Company's Class A Stock, representing approximately 4.2% of its 12,322,073 then issued and outstanding shares of Class A Stock. This authorization supplemented the 12,407 shares that remained authorized and available under the Company's previous share repurchase program for a total of 530,407 shares authorized and available for repurchase at February 28, 2022.

On May 24, 2022, the Company announced that its Board of Directors approved a share repurchase program that authorizes the Company to purchase up to 550,000 shares of the Company's Class A Stock, representing approximately 4.6% of its 11,863,559 then issued and outstanding shares of Class A Stock. This authorization supplemented the 71,893 shares that remained authorized and available under the Company's previous share repurchase program for a total of 621,893 shares authorized and available for repurchase at May 24, 2022.

On July 29, 2022, the Company's Board of Directors approved a share repurchase program that authorizes the Company to purchase up to 536,500 shares of the Company's Class A Stock, representing approximately 4.8% of its 11,251,930 then issued and outstanding shares of Class A Stock. This authorization supplemented the 4,278 shares that remained authorized and available under the Company's previous share repurchase program for a total of 540,778 shares authorized.

On December 13, 2022, the Company's Board of Directors approved a share repurchase program that authorizes the Company to purchase up to 543,000 shares of the Company's Class A Stock, representing approximately 5.0% of its 10,867,660 then issued and outstanding shares of Class A Stock. This authorization supplemented the 144,034 shares that remained authorized and available under the Company's previous share repurchase program for a total of 687,034 shares authorized.

On May 31, 2023, the Company announced the commencement of a modified “Dutch Auction” tender offer to purchase up to $30.0 million of its Class A Stock at a price not less than $34.00 per share or more than $40.00 per share. The Company completed its repurchases pursuant to the tender offer on July 6, 2023, when it successfully repurchased and cancelled 437,183

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

shares of Class A Stock at $40.00 per share for an aggregate purchase price of $17.49 million. As a result, the Company had 10,447,392 shares outstanding on July 6, 2023 after the purchase.

During the year ended December 31, 2023, the Company purchased and canceled an aggregate of 1,684,287 shares of Class A Stock for a total consideration of $60.6 million ($36.00 per share) under its share repurchase program. As of December 31, 2023,223,699 shares remained available to be purchased under the share repurchase program.

On March 1, 2024, the Company's Board of Directors approved a share repurchase program that authorizes the Company to purchase up to 518,000 shares of the Company's Class A Stock, representing approximately 5.0% of its 10,357,376 then issued and outstanding shares of Class A Stock. During the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company purchased and canceled an aggregate of 243,806 shares of Class A Stock for a total consideration of $9.6 million ($39.39 per share) under its share repurchase program. As of December 31, 2024,497,893 shares remained available to be purchased under its share repurchase program.

Share purchases will be made by the Company from time to time in the open market at the prevailing open market price using cash on hand, in compliance with the applicable rules and regulations of the New York Stock Exchange and federal and state securities laws. All shares purchased will be canceled. The share repurchase program is expected to continue indefinitely. The timing and amounts of any purchases will be based on market conditions and other factors including price, regulatory requirements and capital availability. The share repurchase program does not obligate the Company to repurchase any dollar amount or number of shares of Class A Stock. Depending on market conditions and other factors, these repurchases may be commenced or suspended from time to time without prior notice.

Dividends

The Company paid cash dividends of $0.66 per share in 2024 to holders of Class A Stock and Class B Stock, in the aggregate amount of $6.8 million. The Company paid cash dividends of $0.60 per share in 2023 in the aggregate amount of $6.5 million. In 2022, the Company paid cash dividends of $0.60 per share in the aggregate amount of $7.0 million.

On January 31, 2025, the Company announced a quarterly dividend in the amount of $0.18 per share, payable on February 28, 2025 to holders of Class A Stock and Class B Stock of record on February 14, 2025.

15. Earnings per share

Basic earnings per share is computed by dividing net income over the weighted average number of shares of Class A Stock and Class B Stock outstanding. Diluted earnings per share includes the weighted average number of shares of Class A Stock and Class B Stock outstanding and options to purchase Class A Stock and unvested restricted stock awards of Class A Stock using the treasury stock method. Earnings per share have been calculated as follows:

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(1)For the year ended December 31, 2024, there wereno shares of Class A Stock with an anti-dilutive effect granted under share-based compensation arrangements. For the year ended December 31, 2023, the diluted net income per share computation did not include the anti-dilutive effect of 115,950 shares of Class A Stock granted under share-based compensation arrangements. For the year ended December 31, 2022, the diluted net income per share computation did not include the anti-dilutive effect of 4,100 shares of Class A Stock granted under share-based compensation arrangements.

16. Income taxes

Income tax expenses shown in the consolidated income statements are reconciled to amounts of tax that would have been payable from the application of the federal tax rate to pre-tax profit, as follows:

Income tax expenses included in the consolidated income statements represent the following:

Pre-tax loss with respect to non-U.S. operations was $1.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2024. Pre-tax income with respect to non-U.S. operations was $4.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2023. Pre-tax loss with respect to non-U.S. operations was $7.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2022.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

The effective income tax rate for the year ended December 31, 2024 was 32.6% compared with 35.3% for the year ended December 31, 2023. The higher tax rate in the 2024 year was primarily due to the absence of the non-deductible of $13.0 million regulatory settlement, which was recorded in 2023.

Deferred income taxes reflect the net tax effects of temporary differences between the financial reporting and tax bases of assets and liabilities and are measured using enacted tax rates and laws that will be in effect when such differences are expected to reverse. Significant components of the Company's deferred tax assets and liabilities as of December 31, 2024 and 2023 were as follows:

The Company recognized deferred tax assets of $1.9 million at December 31, 2024 within other assets arising from net operating losses incurred by Oppenheimer Israel (OPCO) Ltd. The Company believes that realization of the deferred tax assets is more likely than not based on expectations of future taxable income in Israel. These net operating losses carry forward indefinitely and are not subject to expiration, provided that these subsidiaries and their underlying businesses continue operating normally (as is anticipated).

As of December 31, 2024, the Company had deferred tax assets of $10.6 million arising from net operating losses incurred by Oppenheimer Europe Ltd. and had recorded full valuation allowances. Although the net operating losses carry forward indefinitely, the Company believes it is more likely than not that the Company will not be able to realize its deferred tax assets in the future. The net change during the year in the total valuation allowance is $1.7 million.

The Company and one or more of its subsidiaries files income tax returns in the U.S. federal jurisdiction and in various states and foreign jurisdictions. The Company has closed tax years through 2017 in the U.S. federal jurisdiction.

The Company has unrecognized tax benefits of $1.3 million, $1.2 million and $1.1 million as of December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively (as shown on the table below). Included in the balance of unrecognized tax benefits as of December 31, 2024 and 2023 were $994,000 and $977,000, respectively, of tax benefits for either year that, if recognized, would affect the effective tax rate.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

During the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company added$0.2 million and released$0.2 million related to state and local tax matters. The Company does not believe any unrecognized tax benefit will significantly increase or decrease within twelve months. A reconciliation of the beginning and ending amount of unrecognized tax benefit follows:

In its consolidated income statements, the Company records interest and penalties accruing on unrecognized tax benefits in pre-tax income as interest expense and other expense, respectively. For the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company added tax-related interest expense of $3,000, and for the years ended December 2023 and 2022, the Company released tax-related interest expense of $107,000 and $173,000, respectively, in its consolidated income statement. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, the Company had an income tax-related interest payable of$325,000 and $322,000, respectively, on its consolidated balance sheets.

17. Employee compensation plans

The Company maintains various employee compensation plans for the benefit of its employees. Two types of employee compensation are granted under share-based compensation and cash-based compensation plans.

Share-based Compensation Plans

Oppenheimer Holdings Inc. Incentive Plan

On February 26, 2014, the Company adopted the Oppenheimer Holdings Inc. 2014 Incentive Plan (the 2014 "OIP"). Pursuant to the 2014 OIP, the Compensation Committee of the Board of Directors of the Company (the "Committee") was permitted to grant options to purchase Class A Stock ("stock options"), Class A Stock awards and restricted Class A Stock (collectively "restricted stock awards") to or for the benefit of employees and non-employee directors of the Company and its subsidiaries as part of their compensation. Restricted stock awards were generally awarded for athree orfive year term and fully vest at the end of the term.

Restricted stock - The Company has granted restricted stock awards pursuant to the 2014 OIP. The following table summarizes the status of the Company's non-vested restricted Class A Stock awards under the 2014 OIP for the year ended December 31, 2024:

As of December 31, 2024, all outstanding restricted Class A Stock awards were non-vested. The aggregate intrinsic value of restricted Class A Stock awards outstanding as of December 31, 2024 was $92.0 million. During the year ended December 31,

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

2024, the Company included $12.9 million ($13.1 million in 2023 and $11.5 million in 2022) of compensation expense in its consolidated income statements relating to restricted Class A Stock awards.

As of December 31, 2024, there was $20.3 million of total unrecognized compensation cost related to unvested restricted Class A Stock awards. The cost is expected to be recognized over a weighted average period of 1.6 years.

On March 1, 2024, the Company adopted the Oppenheimer Holdings Inc. 2024 Incentive Plan (the "2024 OIP"). The 2024 OIP received stockholder approval at the Company's Annual Meeting of Stockholders on May 6, 2024. The 2024 OIP replaced the 2014 OIP, which expired by its terms on February 26, 2024. Holders of the Class B Stock of the Company approved for registration 1,000,000 shares of Class A Stock under the 2024 OIP. As of December 31, 2024, the number of shares of Class A Stock available under the 2024 plan, but not yet awarded, was 999,000.

On January 29, 2025, the Company awarded a total of 203,375 restricted shares of Class A Stock to current employees pursuant to the 2024 OIP. Of these restricted shares,105,675 shares will cliff vest inthree years and 97,700 shares will cliff vest infive years. These awards will be expensed over the applicable three orfive year vesting period.

Stock options - The Company has granted stock options pursuant to the 2014 OIP. There were 0 and 2,447 options outstanding as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively.

During the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company included $2,550 ($8,195 in 2023 and $15,702 in 2022) of compensation expense in its consolidated income statement relating to the expensing of stock options.

Oppenheimer Holdings Inc. Stock Appreciation Right Plan

Under the Oppenheimer Holdings Inc. Stock Appreciation Right Plan, the Company awards stock appreciation rights ("OARs") to certain employees as part of their compensation package based on a formula reflecting gross production and length of service. These awards are granted once per year in January with respect to the prior year's production. The OARs vest five years from grant date and settle in cash at vesting.

OARs - The Company has awarded OARs pursuant to the Oppenheimer Holdings Inc. Stock Appreciation Right Plan. The following table summarizes the status of the Company's outstanding OARs awards as of December 31, 2024:

The fair value as of December 31, 2024 for each of the OARs was estimated using the Black-Scholes model with the following assumptions:

(1) The expected term was determined based on the remaining life of the actual awards.

(2) The volatility factor was measured using the weighted average of historical daily price changes of the

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Company's Class A Stock over a historical period commensurate to the expected term of the awards.

(3) The risk-free interest rate was based on periods equal to the expected term of the awards based on the

U.S. Treasury yield curve in effect at December 31, 2024.

As of December 31, 2024,2,642,736 of outstanding OARs were unvested. As of December 31, 2024, the aggregate intrinsic value of OARs outstanding was $65.3 million. In the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company included $32.6 million ($3.9 million in 2023 and $4.4 million in 2022) in compensation expense in its consolidated income statements relating to OARs awards. The liability related to the OARs was $46.9 million as of December 31, 2024. As of December 31, 2024, there was $27.5 million of total unrecognized compensation cost related to unvested OARs. The cost is expected to be recognized over a weighted average period of 3.0 years.

On January 6, 2025,654,280 OARs were awarded to Oppenheimer employees related to fiscal 2024 performance. These OARs will be expensed over 5 years (the vesting period).

Cash-based Compensation Plans

Defined Contribution Plan

The Company, through its subsidiaries, maintains a defined contribution plan covering substantially all full-time U.S. employees. The Oppenheimer & Co. Inc. 401(k) Plan provides that Oppenheimer may make discretionary contributions. Eligible Oppenheimer employees can make voluntary contributions which cannot exceed $23,000, $22,500 and $20,500 per annum in 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively, unless they are also eligible to make "catch up" contributions. The Company made contributions to the 401(k) Plan of $4.9 million, $4.4 million and $4.3 million in 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

Deferred Compensation Plans

On October 26, 2023, the Company terminated the DIP. All deferrals made prior to October 26, 2023 survive the termination of the DIP.

The Company maintains an Executive Deferred Compensation Plan ("EDCP") and a Deferred Incentive Plan ("DIP") in order to offer certain qualified high-performing financial advisors a bonus based upon a formula reflecting years of service, production, net commissions and a valuation of their clients' assets. The bonus amounts resulted in deferrals for fiscal 2024 of $12.1 million ($10.1 million for 2023 and $11.1 million for 2022). These deferrals normally vest after five years. The liability is being recognized over the vesting period. The EDCP also includes voluntary deferrals by senior executives that are not subject to vesting. The Company maintains a Corporate-owned life insurance policy, which is designed to hedge a portion of the EDCP obligation. The EDCP liability is being tracked against the value of a benchmark investment portfolio held for this purpose. Additionally, the Company maintains the Oppenheimer & Co. Inc. Investment Banking and Capital Markets Deferred Compensation Plan ("CMDP") for eligible employees in the Capital Markets business segment. As of December 31, 2024, the Company's liability with respect to the EDCP, DIP and CMDP described below totaled $77.8 million and is included in accrued compensation on the consolidated balance sheet as of December 31, 2024.

The Company also maintains a deferred compensation plan on behalf of certain employees who were formerly employed by CIBC World Markets. The Company hedges this deferred compensation obligation with a portfolio of mutual fund investments. As of December 31, 2024, the Company's liability with respect to this plan totaled $22.4 million.

An employee is eligible to participate in the CMDP if the employee (i) is an Investment Banking Division employee of Oppenheimer with a title of Associate or above whose previous year’s salary and bonus exceeded $200,000, or (ii) is a professional working in the Oppenheimer Capital Markets Division (but not the Investment Banking Division) who is designated by the Plan Administrator (in its sole discretion) as eligible to participate in the Plan. The CMDP has both mandatory and elective contributions. The amount of compensation subject to mandatory deferral (“Bonus Deferral Credit”) is based on a schedule maintained by the Plan Administrator from time to time. The Bonus Deferral Credit vests ratably over a period ofthree years and is distributed upon vesting. For the elective portion, a participant is eligible if his or her base salary and bonus exceed $500,000 and he or she may elect to defer up to 50% of the total of his or her base salary and bonus amounts (“Elective Deferral Credit”) for a 5-year or 10-year period. The Elective Deferral Credit is 100% vested at all times. The Company provides a Matching Credit of 10% of the Elective Deferral Credit which vests on last day of the Performance Year

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(as defined in the CMDP) attributable to the Matching Credit. The Elective Deferral Credit and the Matching Credit are distributed in lump sums in the year following the fifth or tenth anniversary of the last day of the Performance Year (as defined in the CMDP), depending on the participant’s election. For fiscal 2024, the Company’s deferral related to the CMDP totaled $13.4 million which is comprised of Bonus Deferral Credits. Eligibility for Elective Deferral Credits began in 2023 for elections made by December 31, 2021.

The total amount expensed in 2024 for the Company's deferred compensation plans was $38.7 million ($33.6 million in 2023 and $5.3 million in 2022).

18. Commitments and contingencies

Commitments

The Company had capital commitments of $1.3 million with respect to unfunded obligation in private equity funds sponsored by the Company and $6.9 million of commitments related to additional operating leases that have not yet commenced.

As of December 31, 2024, the Company hadno collateralized or uncollateralized letters of credit outstanding.

Contingencies

Many aspects of the Company's business involve substantial risks of liability. In the normal course of business, the Company has been named as defendant or co-defendant in various legal actions, including arbitrations, class actions and other litigation, creating substantial exposure and periodic expenses. Certain of the actual or threatened legal matters include claims for substantial compensatory and/or punitive damages or claims for indeterminate amounts of damages. These proceedings arise primarily from securities brokerage, asset management and investment banking activities. The Company is also involved, from time to time, in other reviews, investigations and proceedings (both formal and informal) by governmental and self-regulatory agencies regarding the Company's business, which may result in expenses, adverse judgments, settlements, fines, penalties, injunctions or other relief. The investigations include inquiries from the SEC, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority ("FINRA") and other regulators.

The Company accrues for estimated loss contingencies related to legal and regulatory matters within Other Expenses in the consolidated income statement when available information indicates that it is probable a liability had been incurred and the Company can reasonably estimate the amount of that loss. In many proceedings, however, it is inherently difficult to determine whether any loss is probable or even possible or to estimate the amount of any loss. In addition, even where a loss is possible or an exposure to loss exists in excess of the liability already accrued with respect to a previously recognized loss contingency, it is often not possible to reasonably estimate the size of the possible loss or range of loss or possible additional losses or range of additional losses.

For certain legal and regulatory proceedings, the Company cannot reasonably estimate such losses, particularly for proceedings that are in their early stages of development or where plaintiffs seek substantial, indeterminate or special damages. Counsel may be required to review, analyze and resolve numerous issues, including through potentially lengthy discovery and determination of important factual matters, and by addressing novel or unsettled legal questions relevant to the proceedings in question, before the Company can reasonably estimate a loss or range of loss or additional loss for the proceeding. Even after lengthy review and analysis, the Company, in many legal and regulatory proceedings, may not be able to reasonably estimate possible losses or range of losses.

For certain other legal and regulatory proceedings, the Company can estimate possible losses, or range of loss in excess of amounts accrued, but does not believe, based on current knowledge and after consultation with counsel, that such losses individually, or in the aggregate, will have a material adverse effect on the Company's consolidated financial statements as a whole.

For legal and regulatory proceedings where there is at least a reasonable possibility that a loss or an additional loss may be incurred, the Company estimates a range of aggregate loss in excess of amounts accrued of up to $12 million. This estimated aggregate range is based upon currently available information for those legal proceedings in which the Company is involved,

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

where the Company can make an estimate for such losses. For certain cases, the Company does not believe that it can make an estimate. The foregoing aggregate estimate is based on various factors, including the varying stages of the proceedings (including the fact that some are currently in preliminary stages), the numerous yet-unresolved issues in many of the proceedings and the attendant uncertainty of the various potential outcomes of such proceedings. Accordingly, the Company's estimate will change from time to time, and actual losses may be more than the current estimate.

Beginning on or about August 31, 2021, Oppenheimer was named as a respondent in numerous arbitrations, many containing multiple claimants, each filed before FINRA, relating to those claimants’ purported investment in Horizon Private Equity, III, LLC (“Horizon”). Horizon is alleged to be a fraudulent scheme involving, among others, a former Oppenheimer employee, John Woods. John Woods left Oppenheimer’s employ in 2016 and Oppenheimer never received a complaint from any of the investors prior to the SEC bringing a complaint against Woods and his co-conspirators in 2021. Oppenheimer has settled or an award has been rendered and paid in all but one of the Horizon-related arbitrations.

In addition, in June and August of 2023, Oppenheimer was served with two Horizon-related complaints in Georgia State Court, by plaintiffs, virtually all of whom were never Oppenheimer customers, alleging unspecified losses. In 2024, each of those complaints was dismissed by the trial court. Plaintiffs in each case subsequently filed an appeal of the court’s order dismissing the cases, each of which is currently pending.

On June 30, 2022, Oppenheimer received a "Wells Notice" from the SEC requesting that Oppenheimer make a written submission to the SEC to explain why Oppenheimer should not be charged with violations of Section 15c2-12 of the Exchange Act, and Rule 15c2-12 thereunder as well as Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board Rules G-17 and G-27 in relation to its sales of municipal notes pursuant to an exemption from continuing disclosure contained in Rule 15c2-12. On September 13, 2022, the SEC filed a complaint against Oppenheimer in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (the “Court") alleging that Oppenheimer violated Section 15B(c)(1) of the Exchange Act and Rule 15c2-12 thereunder as well as Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board Rules G-17 and G-27 for not having fully complied with the exemption from the continuing disclosure obligations under Rule 15c2-12. The SEC asked the Court to enter an order enjoining Oppenheimer from violating the above-referenced rules and requiring it to disgorge approximately $1.9 million plus interest and pay a civil penalty. On January 30, 2024, Oppenheimer and the SEC reached an agreement in principle to settle the litigation pursuant to which Oppenheimer would pay a civil penalty of $1.2 million. The settlement is subject to Oppenheimer obtaining a waiver of certain statutory disqualifications.

19. Regulatory requirements

The Company's U.S. broker dealer subsidiaries, Oppenheimer and Freedom, are subject to the uniform net capital requirements of the SEC under Rule 15c3-1 (the "Rule") promulgated under the Exchange Act. Oppenheimer computes its net capital requirements under the alternative method provided for in the Rule which requires that Oppenheimer maintain net capital equal totwo percent of aggregate customer-related debit items, as defined in SEC Rule 15c3-3. As of December 31, 2024, the net capital of Oppenheimer as calculated under the Rule was $381.4 million or 32.48% of Oppenheimer's aggregate debit items. This was $357.9 million in excess of the minimum required net capital at that date.

Freedom computes its net capital requirement under the basic method provided for in the Rule, which requires that Freedom maintain net capital equal to the greater of $100,000 or 6-2/3% of aggregate indebtedness, as defined. As of December 31, 2024, Freedom had net capital of $3.8 million, which was $3.7 million in excess of the $100,000 required to be maintained at that date.

As of December 31, 2024, the capital required and held under the Financial Conduct Authority's Investment Firms' Prudential Regime ("IFPR") for Oppenheimer Europe Ltd. was as follows:

•Common Equity Tier 1 ratio 182.0% (required 56.0%);

•Tier 1 Capital ratio 182.0% (required 75.0%); and

•Total Capital ratio 243.0% (required 100.0%).

As of December 31, 2024, Oppenheimer Europe Ltd. was in compliance with its regulatory requirements.

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

As of December 31, 2024, the regulatory capital of Oppenheimer Investments Asia Limited was $3.3 million, which was $2.9 million in excess of the $386,200 required to be maintained on that date. Oppenheimer Investments Asia Limited computes its regulatory capital pursuant to the requirements of the Securities and Futures Commission of Hong Kong. As of December 31, 2024, Oppenheimer Investment Asia Limited was in compliance with its regulatory requirements.

As of December 31, 2024, Oppenheimer Trust is required to maintain minimal capital of $4.15 million. Oppenheimer Trust is currently in compliance with its capital requirements.

20. Goodwill and intangibles

Goodwill

The Company's goodwill of $143.6 million resides in reporting units with its Wealth Management ($137.9 million) and Corporate/Other ($5.7 million) reportable segments. The Company performed its annual test for goodwill impairment for both reporting units as of December 31, 2024, which did not result in any impairment charges. Both reporting units had fair values that were substantially in excess of their respective carrying values. Goodwill within the Corporate/Other reporting unit relates to the Company’s acquisition of BondWave LLC and Bitvore.

Intangible assets are primarily comprised of trademarks, trade names and an Internet domain name, carried on the balance sheet at $35.7 million. Indefinite intangible assets are subject to at least an annual test for impairment to determine if the estimated fair value is less than their carrying amount. Trademarks and trade names recorded as of December 31, 2024 and 2023 have been tested for impairment and it has been determined thatno impairment has occurred. At each annual intangible assets impairment testing date, the trademarks and trade names had a fair value that was substantially in excess of their carrying value.

Defined-lived intangible assets are comprised of software licenses, developed technology and customer relationships. These intangible assets carried at $2.9 million are amortized over their estimated lives and are periodically evaluated for impairment whenever events or circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable from future undiscounted cash flows.

21. Segment information

The Company has determined its reportable segments based on the Company's method of internal reporting, which disaggregates its retail business by branch and its proprietary and investment banking businesses by product. The Company’s chief operating decision maker (“CODM”) is the chief executive officer.

The CODM evaluates the performance of the Company’s reportable segments based on their year-over-year revenue and pre-tax profit or loss and uses this measure to allocate resources (including employee, financial and/or capital resources), largely in conjunction with monthly and/or quarterly reviews of segment financial performance. The CODM also uses segment profit or loss in evaluating the incentive and other compensation of segment employees as well as capital investment for facilities and information technology development.

Effective in the fourth quarter of 2024, the Company combined the former Private Client and Asset Management business segments to form the Wealth Management segment. The revised segment structure is aligned with how the CODM and senior management view the performance and operations of our retail focused business. Our Capital Markets and Corporate/Other segments were not impacted by these changes. To provide historical information on a basis consistent with the revised segment presentation, the Company recast prior period segment results.

The Company's reportable segments are:

Wealth Management — includes commissions and fee income earned on assets under management ("AUM"), net interest earnings on client margin loans and cash balances, fees from money market funds, custodian fees, net contributions from stock loan activities and financing activities, and direct expenses;

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OPPENHEIMER HOLDINGS INC.Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Capital Markets — includes investment banking, institutional equities sales, trading, and research, taxable fixed income sales, trading, and research, public finance and municipal trading, as well as the Company's operations in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong and Israel, and direct expenses associated with this segment.

The Company does not allocate costs associated with certain infrastructure support groups that are centrally managed for its reportable segments. These areas include, but are not limited to, legal, compliance, operations, accounting, and internal audit. Costs associated with these groups are separately reported in a Corporate/Other category and primarily include compensation and benefits. The costs of certain centralized or shared functions are allocated based on methodologies that reflect utilization. The Company also includes activities associated with BondWave, LLC in Corporate/Other.

The tables below present information about the Company’s reported segment revenues, segment pre-tax income or loss, compensation expenses, and other segment items for the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022. There are no adjustments or reconciling items for any of the years presented. Asset information by reportable segment is not reported, since the Company does not produce such information for internal use by the CODM.

Revenue, classified by the major geographic areas in which it was earned for the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022 was as follows:

22. Subsequent events

The Company has performed an evaluation of events that occurred since December 31, 2024 and through the date on which the

consolidated financial statements were issued, and determined there are noevents that have occurred that would require recognition or additional disclosure exceptas disclosed in Note 14 and Note 17.