AVIS BUDGET GROUP INC

(Unless otherwise noted, all dollar amounts are in millions, except per share amounts)

1. Basis of Presentation

Avis Budget Group, Inc. provides mobility solutions to businesses and consumers worldwide. The accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements include the accounts and transactions of Avis Budget Group, Inc. and its subsidiaries, as well as entities in which Avis Budget Group, Inc. directly or indirectly has a controlling financial interest (collectively, “we”, “our”, “us”, or the “Company”).

We operate the following reportable business segments:

•Americas -consisting primarily of (i) vehicle rental operations in North America, South America, Central America and the Caribbean, (ii) car sharing operations in certain of these markets, and (iii) licensees in the areas in which we do not operate directly.

•International -consisting primarily of (i) vehicle rental operations in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Australasia, (ii) car sharing operations in certain of these markets, and (iii) licensees in the areas in which we do not operate directly.

We have completed the business acquisitions discussed in Note 6 – Acquisitions to these Consolidated Financial Statements. The operating results of the acquired businesses are included in the accompanying Consolidated Financial Statements from the dates of acquisition.

We present separately the financial data of our vehicle programs. These programs are distinct from our other activities since the assets under vehicle programs are generally funded through the issuance of debt that is collateralized by such assets. The income generated by these assets is used, in part, to repay the principal and interest associated with the debt. Cash inflows and outflows relating to the acquisition of such assets and the principal debt repayment or financing of such assets are classified as activities of our vehicle programs. We believe it is appropriate to segregate the financial data of our vehicle programs because, ultimately, the source of repayment of such debt is the realization of such assets.

2. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

Principles of Consolidation

The Consolidated Financial Statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“GAAP”) and include the accounts of our Company and all entities in which we have a direct or indirect controlling financial interest and variable interest entities for which we have determined we are the primary beneficiary. We consolidate joint venture activities when we have a controlling interest and record non-controlling interests within stockholders’ equity and the statement of comprehensive income equal to the percentage of ownership interest retained in such entities by the respective non-controlling party. Intercompany transactions have been eliminated in consolidation.

Use of Estimates and Assumptions

The use of estimates and assumptions as determined by management is required in the preparation of the Consolidated Financial Statements in conformity with GAAP. These estimates are based on management’s evaluation of historical trends and other information available when the Consolidated Financial Statements are prepared and may affect the amounts reported and related disclosures. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

Revenue Recognition

We derive revenues primarily by providing vehicle rentals and other related products and mobility services to commercial and leisure customers, as well as through licensing of our rental brands. Other related products and mobility services include sales of collision and loss damage waivers under which a customer is relieved from financial responsibility arising from vehicle damage incurred during the rental; products and services for driving convenience such as fuel service options, roadside safety net, electronic toll collection, access to satellite radio, mobile WiFi devices, GPS navigation, child safety seat rentals, and rentals of other supplemental items including automobile towing equipment and other moving accessories and supplies. We also receive payment from customers for certain operating expenses that we incur, including airport concession fees that are paid by us in exchange for the right to operate at airports and other locations, as well as vehicle licensing fees. In addition, we collect membership fees in connection with our car sharing business.

We combine all lease and non-lease components of our vehicle rental contracts for which the timing and pattern of transfer are the same and the lease component meets the classification of an operating lease. Vehicle rentals and other related products and mobility services are recognized evenly over the period of rental, which is on average approximately five days. (See Note 3 – Leases).

Licensing revenues principally consist of royalties paid by our licensees and are recorded as the licensees’ revenues are earned (over the rental period). We renew license agreements in the normal course of business and occasionally terminate, purchase or sell license agreements. In connection with ongoing fees that we receive from our licensees pursuant to license agreements, we are required to provide certain services, such as training, marketing and the operation of reservation systems.

We exclude from the measurement of our transaction price any tax assessed by a governmental authority that is both imposed on and concurrent with a specific revenue-producing transaction and collected from a customer. As a result, revenue is recorded net of such taxes collected. Revenues and expenses associated with fuel, airport concessions and vehicle licensing are recorded on a gross basis within revenues and operating expenses. Membership fees related to our car sharing business are generally nonrefundable, are deferred and recognized ratably over the period of membership.

Revenues are recognized under Leases (Topic 842) with the exception of royalty fee revenue derived from our licensees and revenue related to our customer loyalty program, which were approximately $187 million, $165 million, and $127 million for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

The following table presents our revenues disaggregated by geography:

The following table presents our revenues disaggregated by brand:

Other includes Zipcar and other operating brands.

Deferred Revenue

We record deferred revenues when cash payments are received in advance of satisfying our performance obligations, including amounts that are refundable. In addition, certain customers earn loyalty points on rentals, for which we defer a portion of our rental revenues generally equivalent to the estimated retail value of points expected to be redeemed. We estimate points that will never be redeemed based upon actual redemption and expiration patterns. Currently, loyalty points expire after 12 months of member inactivity. Future changes to expiration assumptions or expiration policy, or to program rules, may result in changes to deferred revenue as well as recognized revenues from the program.

The following table presents changes in deferred revenue associated with our customer loyalty program:

At December 31, 2023 and 2022, $20 million and $15 million was included in accounts payable and other current liabilities, respectively, and $47 million and $46 million in other non-current liabilities, respectively. Non-current amounts are expected to be recognized as revenue withintwo tothree years.

Currency Translation

Assets and liabilities of foreign operations are translated at the rate of exchange in effect on the balance sheet date; income and expenses are translated at the prevailing monthly average rate of exchange. The related translation adjustments are reflected in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) in the stockholders’ equity section of the Consolidated Balance Sheets and in the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (See Note 16 – Stockholders' Equity). We have designated our euro-denominated Notes as a hedge of our investment in euro-denominated foreign operations and, accordingly, record the effective portion of gains or losses on this net investment hedge in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) as part of currency translation adjustments.

Cash and Cash Equivalents, Program Cash and Restricted Cash

We consider highly liquid investments purchased with an original maturity of three months or less to be cash equivalents. Program cash primarily represents amounts specifically designated to purchase assets under vehicle programs and/or to repay the related debt, as such we consider it a restricted cash equivalent. The following table provides a detail of cash and cash equivalents, program and restricted cash reported within the Consolidated Balance Sheets to the amounts shown in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows:

(a)Included within other current assets.

Property and Equipment

Property and equipment (including leasehold improvements) are stated at cost, net of accumulated depreciation and amortization. Depreciation (non-vehicle related) is computed utilizing the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the related assets. Leasehold improvements are amortized over the shorter of the term of the lease or the estimated useful lives of the improvements. Useful lives are as follows:

We capitalize the costs of software developed for internal use when the preliminary project stage is completed and management (i) commits to funding the project and (ii) believes it is probable that the project will be completed and the software will be used to perform the function intended. The software developed or obtained for internal use is amortized on a straight-line basis commencing when such software is ready for its intended use. The net carrying value of software developed or obtained for internal usewas $143 million and $174 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

Goodwill and Other Intangible Assets

Goodwill represents the excess, if any, of the fair value of the consideration transferred by the acquirer and the fair value of any non-controlling interest remaining in the acquiree, if any, over the fair values of the identifiable net assets acquired. We do not amortize goodwill, but assess it for impairment at least annually and whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amounts of their respective reporting units exceed their fair values. We perform our annual impairment assessment in the fourth quarter of each year at the reporting unit level. We assess goodwill for such impairment by comparing the carrying value of each reporting unit to its fair value using the present value of expected future cash flows. When appropriate, comparative market multiples and other factors are used to corroborate the discounted cash flow results.

Other intangible assets, primarily trademarks, with indefinite lives are not amortized but are evaluated annually for impairment and whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of this asset may exceed its fair value. If the carrying value of an other intangible asset exceeds its fair value, an impairment loss is recognized in an amount equal to that excess. Other intangible assets with finite lives are amortized over their estimated useful lives and are evaluated each reporting period to determine if circumstances warrant a revision to these lives.

Impairment of Long-Lived Assets

We are required to assess long-lived assets for impairment whenever circumstances indicate impairment may have occurred. This analysis is performed by comparing the respective carrying values of the assets to the undiscounted expected future cash flows to be generated from such assets. Property and equipment is evaluated separately at the lowest level of identifiable cash flows. If such analysis indicates that the carrying value of these assets is not recoverable, the carrying value of such assets is reduced to fair value.

Vehicles

Vehicles are stated at cost, net of accumulated depreciation. The initial cost of the vehicles is recorded net of incentives and allowances from manufacturers. We acquire a portion of our rental vehicles pursuant to repurchase and guaranteed depreciation programs established by automobile manufacturers. Under these programs, the manufacturers agree to repurchase vehicles at a specified price and date, or guarantee the depreciation rate for a specified period of time, subject to certain eligibility criteria (such as car condition and mileage requirements). We depreciate vehicles such that the net book value on the date of return to the manufacturers is intended to equal the contractual guaranteed residual values, thereby minimizing any gain or loss.

Rental vehicles acquired outside of manufacturer repurchase and guaranteed depreciation programs are depreciated based upon their estimated residual values at their expected dates of disposition, after giving effect to anticipated conditions in the used car market. Any adjustments to depreciation are made prospectively.

The estimation of residual values requires us to make assumptions regarding the age and mileage of the car at the time of disposal, as well as expected used vehicle auction market conditions. We regularly evaluate estimated residual values and adjust depreciation rates as appropriate. Differences between actual residual values and those estimated result in a gain or loss on disposal and are recorded as part of vehicle depreciation at the time of sale. Vehicle-related interest expense amounts are net of vehicle-related interest income of $34 million, $1 million, and $1 million for 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

Advertising Expenses

Advertising and digital marketing costs are generally expensed in the period incurred and are recorded within selling, general and administrative expenses in our Consolidated Statements of Operations. During 2023, 2022 and 2021, advertising costs were approximately $86 million, $64 million, and $81 million, respectively. In addition, during 2023, 2022 and 2021, digital marketing costs were approximately $86 million, $71 million, and $44 million, respectively.

Taxes

We account for income taxes under the asset and liability method, which requires the recognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of events that have been included in the financial statements. Under this method, deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined based on the differences between the financial statement and tax basis of assets and liabilities using enacted tax rates in effect for the year in which the differences are expected to reverse. The effect of a change in tax rates on deferred tax assets and liabilities is recognized in income in the period that includes the enactment date. As a result of the provisions of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, we account for Global Intangible Low-Taxed Income (“GILTI”) as a component of current period income tax expense in the year incurred.

We record net deferred tax assets to the extent we believe that it is more likely than not that these assets will be realized. In making such determination, we consider all available positive and negative evidence, including scheduled reversals of deferred tax liabilities, projected future taxable income, tax planning strategies and recent results of operations. In the event we were to determine that we would be able to realize the deferred income tax assets in the future in excess of their net recorded amount, we would adjust the valuation allowance, which would reduce the provision for income taxes.

Fair Value Measurements

We measure the fair value of assets and liabilities and discloses the source for such fair value measurements. Financial assets and liabilities are classified as follows: Level 1, which refers to assets and liabilities valued using quoted prices from active markets for identical assets or liabilities; Level 2, which refers to assets and liabilities for which significant other observable market inputs are readily available; and Level 3, which are valued based on significant unobservable inputs.

The fair value of our financial instruments is generally determined by reference to market values resulting from trading on a national securities exchange or in an over-the-counter market (Level 1 inputs). In some cases where quoted market prices are not available, prices are derived by considering the yield of the benchmark security that was issued to initially price the instruments and adjusting this rate by the credit spread that market participants would demand for the instruments as of the measurement date (Level 2 inputs). In situations where long-term borrowings are part of a conduit facility backed by short-term floating rate debt, we have determined that its carrying value approximates the fair value of this debt (Level 2 inputs). The carrying amounts of cash and cash equivalents, available-for-sale securities, accounts receivable, program cash and accounts payable and accrued liabilities approximate fair value due to the short-term maturities of these assets and liabilities.

Our derivative assets and liabilities consist principally of currency exchange contracts, interest rate swaps, interest rate caps and commodity contracts, and are carried at fair value based on significant observable inputs (Level 2 inputs). Derivatives entered into by us are typically executed over-the-counter and are valued using internal valuation techniques, as no quoted market prices exist for such instruments. The valuation technique and inputs depend on the type of derivative and the nature of the underlying exposure. We principally use discounted cash flows to value these instruments. These models take into account a variety of factors including, where applicable, maturity, currency exchange rates, our interest rate yield curves and counterparties, credit curves, counterparty creditworthiness and commodity prices. These factors are applied on a consistent basis and are based upon observable inputs where available.

Derivative Instruments

Derivative instruments are used as part of our overall strategy to manage exposure to market risks associated with fluctuations in currency exchange rates, interest rates and fuel costs. As a matter of policy, derivatives are not used for trading or speculative purposes.

All derivatives are recorded at fair value either as assets or liabilities. Changes in fair value of derivatives not designated as hedging instruments are recognized currently in earnings within the same line item as the hedged item. The changes in fair value of a derivative that is designated as either a cash flow or net investment hedge is recorded as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) and reclassified into earnings in the same period or periods during which the hedged transaction affects earnings and is presented in the same income statement line item as the earnings effect of the hedged item. Amounts related to our derivative instruments are recognized in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows consistent with the nature of the hedged item (principally operating activities).

Currency Transactions

Currency gains and losses resulting from foreign currency transactions are generally included in operating expenses within the Consolidated Statements of Operations; however, the net gain or loss of currency transactions on intercompany loans and the unrealized gain or loss on intercompany loan hedges are included within interest expense related to corporate debt, net.

Self-Insurance Reserves

The Consolidated Balance Sheets include $397 million and $391 million of liabilities associated with retained risks of liability to third parties as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. Such liabilities relate primarily to public liability and third-party property damage claims, as well as claims arising from the sale of ancillary insurance products including, but not limited to, supplemental liability, personal effects protection and personal accident insurance. These obligations represent an estimate for both reported claims not yet paid and claims incurred but not yet reported. The estimated reserve requirements for such claims are recorded on an undiscounted basis utilizing actuarial methodologies and various assumptions which include, but are not limited to, our historical loss experience and projected loss development factors. The required liability is also subject to adjustment in the future based upon changes in claims experience, including changes in the number of incidents for which we are ultimately liable and changes in the cost per incident. These amounts are included within accounts payable and other current liabilities and other non-current liabilities.

The Consolidated Balance Sheets also include liabilities of approximately $49 million and $53 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively, related to workers’ compensation, health and welfare and other employee benefit programs. The liabilities represent an estimate for both reported claims not yet paid and claims incurred but not yet reported, utilizing actuarial methodologies similar to those described above. These amounts are included within accounts payable and other current liabilities and other non-current liabilities.

Stock-Based Compensation

Stock-based compensation cost is measured at the grant date, based on the fair value of the award, and is recognized as expense on a straight-line basis over the vesting period. Our policy is to record compensation expense for stock options, and restricted stock units that are time- and performance-based, for the portion of the award that vests. Compensation expense related to market-based restricted stock units is recognized provided that the requisite service is rendered, regardless of when, if ever, the market condition is satisfied. We estimate the fair value of restricted stock units using the market price of our common stock on the date of grant. We estimate the fair value of stock-based and cash unit awards containing a market condition using a Monte Carlo simulation model. Key inputs and assumptions used in the Monte Carlo simulation model include the stock price of the award on the grant date, the expected term, the risk-free interest rate over the expected term, the expected annual dividend yield and the expected stock price volatility. The expected volatility is based on a combination of the historical and implied volatility of our publicly traded, near-the-money stock options, and the valuation period is based on the vesting period of the awards. The risk-free interest rate is derived from the U.S. Treasury yield curve in effect at the time of grant and, since we do not currently pay or plan to pay a recurring dividend on our common stock, the expected dividend yield waszero.

Business Combinations

We use the acquisition method of accounting for business combinations, which requires that the assets acquired and liabilities assumed be recorded at their respective fair values at the date of acquisition. Assets acquired and liabilities assumed in a business combination that arise from contingencies are recognized if fair value can be reasonably estimated at the acquisition date. The excess, if any, of (i) the fair value of the consideration transferred by the acquirer and the fair value of any non-controlling interest remaining in the acquiree, over (ii) the fair values of the identifiable net assets acquired is recorded as goodwill. Gains and losses on the re-acquisition of license agreements are recorded in the Consolidated Statements of Operations within transaction-related costs, net, upon completion of the respective acquisition. Costs incurred to effect a business combination are expensed as incurred, except for the cost to issue debt related to the acquisition.

We record contingent consideration resulting from a business combination at its fair value on the acquisition date. The fair value of the contingent consideration is generally estimated by utilizing a Monte Carlo simulation technique, based on a range of possible future results (Level 3). Any changes in contingent consideration are recorded in transaction-related costs, net.

Transaction-related Costs, net

Transaction-related costs, net are classified separately in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. These costs are comprised of expenses primarily related to acquisition-related activities such as due-diligence and other advisory costs, expenses related to the integration of the acquiree’s operations with our comparable expenses, including the implementation of best practices and process improvements, non-cash gains and losses related to re-acquired rights, expenses related to pre-acquisition contingencies and contingent consideration related to acquisitions.

Investments

We account for investments for which we have the ability to exercise significant influence, but do not have a controlling interest, using the equity method of accounting and record our proportional share of net income or loss within operating expenses in the Consolidated Statements of Operations. We assess equity method investments for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amounts of such investments may not be recoverable. Any difference between the carrying value of the equity method investment and its estimated fair value is recognized as an impairment charge if the loss in value is deemed other than temporary. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, we had investments with a carrying value of $93 million and $77 million, respectively, recorded within other non-current assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

Aggregate realized gains and losses on equity investments and dividend income are recorded within operating expenses on the Consolidated Statements of Operations. During 2023, 2022 and 2021, the amounts realized from the sale of equity investments and dividend income was $12 million, $12 million, and $10 million, respectively. See Note 17 – Related Party Transactions for our equity method investment in our former subsidiary.

Divestitures

We classify long-lived assets and liabilities to be disposed of as held for sale in the period in which they are available for immediate sale in their present condition and the sale is probable and expected to be completed within one year. We initially measure assets and liabilities held for sale at the lower of their carrying value or fair value less costs to sell, and we reassess their fair value each reporting period until disposed. When the divestiture represents a strategic shift that has, or will have, a major effect on our operations and financial results, the disposal is presented as a discontinued operation.

In February 2022, we completed the sale of our operations in the United States Virgin Islands for $13 million, for the right to operate the Avis brand. During the year ended December 31, 2022, we recorded a gain of $2 million within restructuring and other related charges.

In December 2021, we entered into a stock purchase agreement with Spuigroep B.V. to sell our operations in the Netherlands. In March 2022, we completed the sale of our operations in the Netherlands for $15 million, subject to working capital adjustments, for the right to operate the Avis and Budget brands. During the year ended December 31, 2022, we recorded a loss of $7 million, net of impact of foreign currency adjustments, within restructuring and other related charges. The Netherlands operations are reported within our International reporting segment.

In May 2021, we completed the sale of our operation in Argentina to Urbiz S.A. for $4 million. As part of the sale, Urbiz S.A. agreed to pay the purchase price, plus interest, overtwo years for the right to operate the Avis and Budget brands. During the year ended December 31, 2021, we recorded a loss of$14 million, net of the impact of foreign currency adjustments, within restructuring and other related charges. In addition, we paid severance to terminated employees of$2 million.

Variable Interest Entity (“VIE”)

We review our investments to determine if they are VIEs. A VIE is an entity in which either (i) the equity investors as a group lack the power through voting or similar rights to direct the activities of such entity that most significantly impact such entity’s economic performance or (ii) the equity investment at risk is insufficient to finance that entity’s activities without additional subordinated financial support. Entities that are determined to be VIEs are consolidated if we are the primary beneficiary of the entity. The primary beneficiary possesses the power to direct the activities of the VIE that most significantly impact its economic performance and has the obligation to absorb losses or the right to receive benefits from the VIE that are significant to it. We will reconsider our original assessment of a VIE upon the occurrence of certain events such as contributions and redemptions, either by us, or third parties, or amendments to an entity’s governing documents. On an ongoing basis, we reconsider whether we are deemed to be a VIE’s primary beneficiary. See Note 17 – Related Party Transactions for our VIE investment in our former subsidiary.

Nonmarketable Equity Securities

We classify investments without readily determinable fair values that are not accounted for under the equity method as nonmarketable equity securities. The accounting guidance requires nonmarketable equity securities to be recorded at cost and adjusted to fair value at each reporting period. We apply the measurement alternative, which allows these investments to be recorded at cost, less impairment, if any, and subsequently adjust for observable price changes of identical or similar investments of the same issuer. Any changes in value are recorded within operating expenses. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, our nonmarketable equity securities within non-current assets on our Consolidated Balance sheets were not material and no material adjustments were made to the carrying values of these securities during the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 or 2021.

Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements

Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, “Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures,” which amends Topic 740 primarily through enhanced disclosures about an entity’s tax risks and tax planning. The amendments are effective for public business entities in annual periods beginning after December 15, 2024, with early adoption permitted on a prospective or retrospective basis. ASU 2023-09 will become effective for us on January 1, 2025. We are currently evaluating the impact of the adoption of this accounting pronouncement on our Consolidated Financial Statements.

Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures

In November 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-07, “Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures,” which amends Topic 280 primarily through enhanced disclosures about significant segment expenses. The amendments are effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2023 and interim periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024, with early adoption permitted. ASU 2023-07 became effective for us on January 1, 2024. We are currently evaluating the impact of the adoption of this accounting pronouncement on our Consolidated Financial Statements.

Accounting for Contract Assets and Contract Liabilities from Contracts with Customers

In October 2021, the FASB issued ASU 2021-08, “Accounting for Contract Assets and Contract Liabilities from Contracts with Customers,” which amends Topic 805 to add contract assets and contract liabilities to the list of exceptions to the recognition and measurement principles that apply to business combinations and to require an acquirer to recognize and measure contract assets and contract liabilities acquired in a business combination in accordance with Topic 606. ASU 2021-08 became effective for us on January 1, 2023. The adoption of this accounting pronouncement did not have a material impact on our Consolidated Financial Statements.

Reference Rate Reform

In January 2021, the FASB issued ASU 2021-01, “Reference Rate Reform (Topic 848),” which amends ASU 2020-04 and clarifies the scope and guidance of Topic 848 to allow derivatives impacted by the reference rate reform to qualify for certain optional expedients and exceptions for contract modifications and hedge accounting. The guidance is optional and is effective for a limited period of time. In December 2022, the FASB also issued ASU 2022-06, “Reference Rate Reform (Topic 848): Deferral of the Sunset Date of Topic 848,” to defer the sunset date of ASC 848 from December 31, 2022 to December 31, 2024. As of December 31, 2023, this guidance had no impact on our Consolidated Financial Statements and we will continue to evaluate this guidance.

3. Leases

Lessor

The following table presents our lease revenues disaggregated by geography:

The following table presents our lease revenues disaggregated by brand:

Other includes Zipcar and other operating brands.

Lessee

We have operating and finance leases for rental locations, corporate offices, vehicle rental fleet and equipment. Many of our operating leases for rental locations contain concession agreements with various airport authorities that allow us to conduct our vehicle rental operations on site. In general, concession fees for airport locations are based on a percentage of total commissionable revenue as defined by each airport authority, some of which are subject to minimum annual guaranteed amounts. Concession fees other than minimum annual guaranteed amounts are not included in the measurement of operating lease ROU assets and operating lease liabilities and are recorded as variable lease expense as incurred. Our operating leases for rental locations often also require us to pay or reimburse operating expenses.

We lease a portion of our vehicles under operating leases. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, we have guaranteed up to $52 million and $65 million, respectively, of residual values for these vehicles at the end of their respective lease terms. We believe that, based on current market conditions, the net proceeds from the sale of these vehicles at the end of their lease terms will equal or exceed their net book values and therefore have not recorded a liability related to guaranteed residual values.

The components of lease expense are as follows:

(a) Primarily included in operating expenses and for the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, includes $(9) million and $(2) million of minimum annual guaranteed rent in excess of concession fees as defined in our rental concession agreements, respectively.

(b) Included in vehicle depreciation and lease charges, net.

(c) Included in vehicle interest, net.

Supplemental balance sheet information related to leases is as follows:

(a) Included inaccounts payable and other current liabilities.

(b) Included invehicles, net within assets under vehicle programs.

(c) Included indebt within liabilities under vehicle programs.

(d) Included inreceivables from vehicle manufacturers and other within assets under vehicle programs.

(e) Included inother within liabilities under vehicle programs.

Supplemental cash flow information related to leases is as follows:

Maturities of lease liabilities as of December 31, 2023 are as follows:

4. Earnings Per Share

The following table sets forth the computation of basic and diluted earnings per share (“EPS”) (shares in millions):

Diluted EPS was computed using the treasury stock method for non-vested stock. The following table summarizes our outstanding common stock equivalents that were anti-dilutive and therefore excluded from the computation of diluted EPS (shares in millions):

(a)The weighted average grant date fair value for anti-dilutive non-vested stock for 2023 and 2022 was $198.92 and $177.70, respectively.

5. Restructuring and Other Related Charges

During second quarter 2022, we initiated a restructuring plan to focus on consolidating our global operations by designing new processes and implementing new systems (“Cost Optimization”). As of December 31, 2023, we formally communicated the termination of employment to approximately 400 employees as part of this process, the majority of which have been terminated. We expect this initiative to be completed in 2024.

During first quarter 2021, we initiated a global restructuring plan to focus on cost discipline by reviewing headcounts, facilities and contractor agreements. We transformed our business as we exited the COVID-19 crisis by controlling fixed costs and matching variable costs to demand (“T21”). This initiative is complete.

During first quarter 2020, we initiated a global restructuring plan to reduce operating costs, such as headcount and facilities, due to declining reservations and revenue resulting from the COVID-19 outbreak (“2020 Optimization”). This initiative is complete.

During third quarter 2019, we initiated a restructuring plan to exit our operations in Brazil by closing rental facilities, disposing of assets and terminating personnel (“Brazil”). This initiative is complete.

During first quarter 2019, we initiated a restructuring plan to drive global efficiency by improving processes and consolidating functions, and to create new objectives and strategies for our truck rental operations in the United States by reducing headcount, large vehicles and rental locations (“T19”). This initiative is complete.

The following tables summarize the change to our restructuring-related liabilities and identifies the amounts recorded within our reporting segments for restructuring charges and corresponding payments and utilizations:

Other Related Charges

Limited Voluntary Opportunity Plans (“LVOP”)

During the second quarter of 2021, our operations in our International segment offered a voluntary termination program to certain employees in field operations and general and administrative functions for a limited time. These employees, if qualified, elected resignation from employment in return for enhanced severance benefits to be settled in cash. During the year ended December 31, 2021, we recorded other related charges of approximately $17 million in connection with the LVOP. As of December 31, 2021, approximately 130 employees elected to participate in the plan and the participants have been terminated.

Officer Separation Costs

In April 2022, we announced the departure of Veresh Sita as Executive Vice President and Chief Digital and Innovation Officer effective May 13, 2022. In connection with Mr. Sita’s separation, we recorded other related charges of approximately $1 million, inclusive of accelerated stock-based compensation expense, for the year ended December 31, 2022.

6. Acquisitions

In June 2023, we completed the acquisition of a licensee in North America for approximately $14 million, plus approximately $20 million for acquired fleet. This investment is in-line with our strategy to re-acquire licensees when advantageous to expand our footprint of Company-operated locations. The acquired fleet was financed under our existing financing arrangements. In connection with this acquisition, approximately $14 million was recorded to other intangibles related to license agreements. The license agreements are being amortized over a weighted average useful life of approximately five years. The fair value of the assets acquired and liabilities assumed has not yet been finalized and is therefore subject to change.

In September 2023, we completed the acquisition of McNicoll Vehicle Hire, a vehicle rental company in Scotland specializing in van and car rentals, for approximately $17 million, net of acquired cash. The investment enabled the Company to expand its footprint of vehicle rental services in Scotland. The excess of the purchase price over preliminary fair value of net assets acquired was allocated to goodwill, which was assigned to the Company’s International reportable segment. In connection with this acquisition, approximately $10 million was recorded to goodwill, $4 million was recorded to trade names, and $1 million was recorded to customer relationships. The trade names and customer relationships will be amortized over a weighted average useful life of approximately 10 years. The goodwill is not deductible for tax purposes. The fair value of the assets acquired and liabilities assumed has not yet been finalized and is therefore subject to change.

In October 2023, we completed the acquisition of a licensee in North America for approximately $10 million, plus approximately $4 million for acquired fleet. This investment is in-line with our strategy to re-acquire licensees when advantageous to expand our footprint of Company-operated locations. The acquired fleet was financed under our existing financing arrangements. In connection with this acquisition, approximately $10 million was recorded to other intangibles related to license agreements. The license agreements are being amortized over a weighted average useful life of approximately three years. The fair value of the assets acquired and liabilities assumed has not yet been finalized and is therefore subject to change.

During 2021, we completed the acquisitions of various licensees in Europe and North America, for approximately $23 million, plus $22 million for acquired fleet. These investments were in-line with our strategy to re-acquire licensees when advantageous to expand our footprint of Company-operated locations. The acquired fleet was financed under our existing financing arrangements. In connection with these acquisitions, approximately $28 million was recorded to other intangibles related tolicense agreements. The license agreements are being amortized over a weighted average useful life of approximatelyone year. Differences between the preliminary allocation of purchase price and the final allocation were not material.

7. Intangible Assets

Intangible assets consisted of:

(a)Primarily amortized over a period ranging from 0 to 40 years with a weighted average life of 15 years.

(b)Primarily amortized over a period ranging from 3 to 20 years with a weighted average life of 11 years.

(c)Primarily amortized over a period ranging from 2 to 10 years with a weighted average life of 9 years.

Amortization expense relating to all intangible assets was as follows:

Based on our amortizable intangible assets at December 31, 2023, we expect related amortization expense of approximately$29 million for 2024, $23 million for 2025, $21 million for 2026, $15 million for 2027 and $11 million for 2028 excluding effects of currency exchange rates.

The carrying amounts of goodwill and related changes are as follows:

8. Vehicle Rental Activities

The components of vehicles, net within assets under vehicle programs are as follows:

(a) See Note 17 – Related Party Transactions.

The components of vehicle depreciation and lease charges, net are summarized below:

At December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, we had payables related to vehicle purchases included in liabilities under vehicle programs - other of $287 million, $265 million, and$142 million, respectively, and receivables related to vehicle sales included in assets under vehicle programs - receivables from vehicle manufacturers and other of $237 million, $212 million, and$134 million, respectively.

9. Income Taxes

The provision for income taxes consists of the following:

Income before income taxes is comprised of the following:

Deferred income tax assets, net is comprised of the following:

(a) The valuation allowanceat December 31, 2023 relates to tax loss carryforwards and certain deferred tax assets of $100 million and $3 million, respectively. The valuation allowance at December 31, 2022 relates to tax loss carryforwards and certain deferred tax assets of $97 million and $4 million, respectively. The valuation allowances will be reduced when and if we determine it is more likely than not that the related deferred income tax assets will be realized.

Deferred income tax assets and liabilities related to vehicle programs are comprised of the following:

At December 31, 2023, we had U.S. federal net operating loss carryforwards of approximately $4.9 billion. The majority of the net operating loss carryforwards have an indefinite utilization period pursuant to the Tax Act and a significant remaining portion expires by 2031. Such net operating loss carryforwards are primarily related to accelerated depreciation of our U.S. vehicles. Currently, we do not record valuation allowances on the majority of our U.S. federal tax loss carryforwards as there are adequate deferred tax liabilities that could be realized within the carryforward period. At December 31, 2023, we had foreign net operating loss carryforwards of approximately $1.0 billion, the majority of which has an indefinite utilization period.

At December 31, 2023, we had undistributed earnings of certain foreign subsidiaries of approximately $1.6 billion that we have indefinitely reinvested, and on which we have not recognized deferred taxes. Estimating the amount of potential tax is not practicable because of the complexity and variety of assumptions necessary to compute the tax.

The reconciliation between the U.S. federal income tax statutory rate and our effective income tax rate is as follows:

(a)For the year ended December 31, 2022, we reclassified (0.4%) of certain tax credits to conform to the current year presentation. This reclassification had no impact to our reported effective income tax rate.

The following is a tabular reconciliation of the gross amount of unrecognized tax benefits for the year:

We do not anticipate that total unrecognized tax benefits will change significantly in 2024.

We are subject to taxation in the United States and various foreign jurisdictions. As of December 31, 2023, the 2007 through 2022 tax years generally remain subject to examination by the federal tax authorities. The 2012 through 2022 tax years generally remain subject to examination by various state tax authorities. In significant foreign jurisdictions, the 2012 through 2022 tax years generally remain subject to examination by their respective tax authorities.

Substantially all of the gross amount of the unrecognized tax benefits at December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, if recognized, would affect our provision for income taxes. As of December 31, 2023, our unrecognized tax benefits were offset by tax loss carryforwards and other deferred tax assets in the amount of $28 million.

The following table presents unrecognized tax benefits:

(a)Pursuant to the agreements governing the disposition of certain subsidiaries in 2006, we are entitled to indemnification for certain predisposition tax contingencies. As of December 31, 2023, $17 million of unrecognized tax benefits in current income taxes payable are related to tax contingencies which we believe we are entitled to indemnification. As of December 31, 2022, $13 million unrecognized tax benefits in non-current income taxes payable are related to tax contingencies for which we believe we are entitled to indemnification.

(b)We recognize potential interest related to unrecognized tax benefits within interest expense related to corporate debt, net on the accompanying Consolidated Statements of Operations. Penalties incurred during the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, were not significant and were recognized as a component of the provision for income taxes.

10. Other Current Assets

Other current assets consisted of:

11. Property and Equipment, net

Property and equipment, net consisted of:

Depreciation and amortization expense relating to property and equipment during 2023, 2022 and 2021 was $187 million, $181 million, and $205 million, respectively (including $101 million, $115 million, and $105 million, respectively, of amortization expense relating to capitalized software). At December 31, 2023, we had payables related to property and equipment included in accounts payable and other current liabilities and in other non-current liabilities of $18 million and $6 million, respectively. At December 31, 2022, we had payables related to property and equipment included in accounts payable and other current liabilities and in other non-current liabilities of $19 million and $1 million, respectively.

12. Accounts Payable and Other Current Liabilities

Accounts payable and other current liabilities consisted of:

13. Long-term Corporate Debt and Borrowing Arrangements

Long-term debt and other borrowing arrangements consisted of:

(a)The floating rate term loans are part of our senior revolving credit facility, which is secured by pledges of capital stock of certain of our subsidiaries, and liens on substantially all of our intellectual property and certain other real and personal property.

(b)Primarily includes finance leases which are secured by liens on the related assets.

Term Loan

Floating Rate Term Loan due 2027. In February 2020, we amended our Floating Rate Term Loan and extended its maturity term to 2027. As of December 31, 2023, the loan bears interest at one-month Secured Overnight Financing Rate (“SOFR”) plus 1.75%, for an aggregate rate of 7.22%; however, we entered into an interest rate swap to hedge $750 million of our interest rate exposure related to the floating rate term loan at an aggregate rate of 3.26%.

Floating Rate Term Loan due 2029. In March 2022, we entered into a $750 million Floating Rate Term Loan due March 2029, at a price of 97% of the aggregate principal amount, with interest paid monthly. In December 2023, we redeemed approximately $200 million of our outstanding balance using the proceeds from the issuance of our 8.000% Senior Notes due February 2031. The Term Loan bears interest at one-month SOFR plus 3.00% for an aggregate rate of 8.46%.

Senior Notes

4.125% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2024. In September 2016, we issued €300 million of 4.125% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2024 at par, with interest payable semi-annually. We have the right to redeem these notes in whole or in part at any time on or after November 15, 2019 at specified redemption prices plus accrued interest. In October 2016, we used the net proceeds from the offering primarily to redeem €275 million of our outstanding 6.000% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2021. We redeemed these notes in September 2023 using the proceeds from our 7.250% euro-denominated Senior Notes due July 2030.

4.500% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2025. In March 2017, we issued €250 million of 4.500% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2025, at par, with interest payable semi-annually. We have the right to redeem these notes in whole or in part on or after May 15, 2020 at specified redemption prices plus accrued interest. In April 2017, we used the net proceeds from the offering to redeem our outstanding €175 million principal amount of 6.000% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2021 for €180 million plus accrued interest. In June 2017, we used the remaining proceeds to redeem a portion of our Floating Rate Senior

Notes due 2017. We redeemed these notes in November 2023 using the proceeds from our 8.000% Senior Notes due February 2031.

4.750% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2026. In October 2018, we issued €350 million of 4.750% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2026, at par, with interest payable semi-annually. We have the right to redeem these notes in whole or in part on or after September 30, 2021 at specified redemption prices plus accrued interest. In October 2018, we used the net proceeds from the offering to redeem our 5.125% Senior Notes due June 2022 for $410 million plus accrued interest.

5.750% Senior Notes due 2027. In July 2019, we issued $400 million of 5.750% Senior Notes due July 2027, at par, with interest payable semi-annually. We used the net proceeds from the offering to redeem $400 million principal amount of our 5.500% Senior Notes due April 2023. In August 2020, we issued $350 million of additional 5.750% Senior Notes due July 2027, at 92% of face value, under the indenture governing our existing 5.750% Senior Notes. We used the proceeds from this offering to redeem the outstanding $100 million in aggregate principal amount of our 5.500% Senior Notes due 2023, with the remainder being used for general corporate purposes.

4.750% Senior Notes due 2028. In March 2021, we issued $500 million of 4.750% Senior Notes due April 2028, at par, with interest paid semiannually. We have the right to redeem these notes in whole or in part at any time on or after April 1, 2024 at specified redemption prices plus accrued interest. Net proceeds, together with cash on hand, were used to redeem all of the outstanding 6.375% Senior Notes due 2024 for $356 million plus accrued interest and a portion of our outstanding 5.250% Senior Notes due 2025 for $142 million plus accrued interest.

5.375% Senior Notes due 2029. In March 2021, we issued $600 million of 5.375% Senior Notes due March 2029, at par, with interest paid semiannually. We have the right to redeem these notes in whole or in part at any time on or after March 1, 2024 at specified redemption prices plus accrued interest. Net proceeds, together with cash on hand, were used to redeem all of the outstanding 10.500% Senior Secured Notes due 2025 for $599 million plus accrued interest.

7.250% euro-denominated Senior Notes due July 2030. In July 2023, we issued €400 million of 7.250% euro-denominated Senior Notes due July 2030, at par, with interest payable semi-annually. We have the right to redeem these notes in whole or in part at any time on or after July 2026 at a specified redemption price plus accrued interest. In September 2023, we used net proceeds from the offering primarily to redeem all of the €300 million of our outstanding 4.125% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2024 plus accrued interest.

8.000% Senior Notes due February 2031. In November 2023, we issued $500 million of 8.000% Senior Notes due February 2031, at 99.3% of face value, with interest payable semi-annually. We have the right to redeem these notes in whole or in part at any time on or after November 2026 at a specified redemption price plus accrued interest. Net proceeds were used to fully redeem our 4.500% euro-denominated Senior Notes due 2025 and a portion of our outstanding balance on our Term Loan due 2029, with the remainder being used for general corporate purposes.

In connection with the debt amendments and repayments for the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2021, we recorded$5 million and $136 million in early extinguishment of debt costs, respectively.

The 5.750% Senior Notes, the 4.750% Senior Notes, the 5.375% Senior Notes and the 8.000% Senior Notes are senior unsecured obligations of our Avis Budget Car Rental, LLC (“ABCR”) subsidiary, are guaranteed by us and certain of our domestic subsidiaries and rank equally in right of payment with all of our existing and future senior unsecured indebtedness.

The 4.125% euro-denominated Senior Notes and 4.500% euro-denominated Senior Notes were, and the 4.750% euro-denominated Senior Notes and the 7.250% euro-denominated Senior Notes are, unsecured obligations of our Avis Budget Finance plc subsidiary, and are (or were) guaranteed on a senior basis by us and certain of our domestic subsidiaries and rank (or ranked) equally with all of our existing senior unsecured debt.

Debt Maturities

The following table provides contractual maturities of our corporate debt at December 31, 2023:

(a)These short-term borrowings have weighted average interest rates which range from 6.19% to 6.68% as of December 31, 2023.

Committed Credit Facilities And Available Funding Arrangements

At December 31, 2023, the committed corporate credit facilities available to us and/or our subsidiaries were as follows:

(a)The senior revolving credit facility bears interest at one-month SOFR plus 1.75% and is part of our senior credit facilities, which include the floating rate term loan and the senior revolving credit facility, and which are secured by pledges of capital stock of certain of our subsidiaries, and liens on substantially all of our intellectual property and certain other real and personal property. In December 2023, we amended our senior revolving credit facility and extended its maturity term to December 2028.

Debt Covenants

The agreements governing our indebtedness contain restrictive covenants, including restrictions on dividends paid to us by certain of our subsidiaries, the incurrence of additional indebtedness and/or liens by us and certain of our subsidiaries, acquisitions, mergers, liquidations, and sale and leaseback transactions. Our senior credit facility also contains a maximum leverage ratio requirement. As of December 31, 2023, we were in compliance with the financial covenants governing our indebtedness.

14. Debt Under Vehicle Programs and Borrowing Arrangements

Debt under vehicle programs, including related party debt due to Avis Budget Rental Car Funding (AESOP) LLC (“Avis Budget Rental Car Funding”), consisted of:

(a)Deferred financing fees related to Debt due to Avis Budget Rental Car Funding as of December 31, 2023 and 2022 were $61 million and $47 million, respectively.

Americas

Debt due to Avis Budget Rental Car Funding. Avis Budget Rental Car Funding, an unconsolidated bankruptcy remote qualifying special purpose limited liability company, issues privately placed notes to investors as well as to banks and bank-sponsored conduit entities. Avis Budget Rental Car Funding uses the proceeds from its note issuances to make loans to our wholly-owned subsidiary, AESOP Leasing LP (“AESOP Leasing”), on a continuing basis. AESOP Leasing is required to use the proceeds of such loans to acquire or finance the acquisition of vehicles used in our rental car operations. By issuing debt through the Avis Budget Rental Car Funding program, we pay a lower rate of interest than if we had issued debt directly to third parties. Avis Budget Rental Car Funding is not consolidated, as we are not the “primary beneficiary” of Avis Budget Rental Car Funding. We determined that we are not the primary beneficiary because we do not have the obligation to absorb the potential losses or receive the benefits of Avis Budget Rental Car Funding’s activities since our only significant source of variability in the earnings, losses or cash flows of Avis Budget Rental Car Funding is exposure to our own creditworthiness, due to our loan from Avis Budget Rental Car Funding. Because Avis Budget Rental Car Funding is not consolidated, AESOP Leasing’s loan obligations to Avis Budget Rental Car Funding are reflected as related party debt on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. We also have an asset within Assets under vehicle programs on our Consolidated Balance Sheets which represents securities issued to us by Avis Budget Rental Car Funding. AESOP Leasing is consolidated, as we are the “primary beneficiary” of AESOP Leasing; as a result, the vehicles purchased by AESOP Leasing remain on our Consolidated Balance Sheets. We determined we are the primary beneficiary of AESOP Leasing, as we have the ability to direct its activities, an obligation to absorb a majority of its expected losses and the right to receive the benefits of AESOP Leasing’s activities. AESOP Leasing’s vehicles and related assets, which as of December 31, 2023, approximate $18 billion and some of which are subject to manufacturer repurchase and guaranteed depreciation agreements, collateralize the debt issued by Avis Budget Rental Car Funding. The assets and liabilities of AESOP Leasing are presented on our Consolidated Balance Sheets within Assets under vehicle programs and Liabilities under vehicle programs, respectively. The assets of AESOP Leasing, included within assets under vehicle programs (excluding the investment in Avis Budget Rental Car Funding (AESOP) LLC—related party) are restricted. Such assets may be used only to repay the respective AESOP Leasing liabilities, included within Liabilities under vehicle programs, and to purchase new vehicles, although if certain collateral coverage requirements are met, AESOP Leasing may pay dividends from excess cash. The creditors of AESOP Leasing and Avis Budget Rental Car Funding have no recourse to our general credit. We periodically provide Avis Budget Rental Car Funding with non-contractually required support, in the form of equity and loans, to serve as additional collateral for the debt issued by Avis Budget Rental Car Funding.

The business activities of Avis Budget Rental Car Funding are limited primarily to issuing indebtedness and using the proceeds thereof to make loans to AESOP Leasing for the purpose of acquiring or financing the acquisition of vehicles to be leased to our rental car subsidiaries and pledging its assets to secure the indebtedness. Because Avis Budget Rental Car Funding is not consolidated by us, its results of operations and cash flows are not reflected within our financial statements.

The following table provides a summary of debt issued by AESOP during the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022:

We used the proceeds from these borrowings to fund the repayment of maturing vehicle-backed debt and the acquisition of rental cars in the United States. Borrowings under the Avis Budget Rental Car Funding program primarily represent fixed rate notes and had a weighted average interest rate of 4.99% and 4.07% as of December 31, 2023 and 2022 respectively.

Debt borrowings. We finance the acquisition of vehicles used in our Canadian rental operations through a consolidated, bankruptcy remote special-purpose entity, which issues privately placed notes to investors and bank-sponsored conduits. We finance the acquisition of fleet for our truck rental operations in the United States through a combination of debt facilities and leases. These debt borrowings represent a mix of fixed and floating rate debt and had a weighted average interest rate of 5.77% and 4.26% as of December 31, 2023 and 2022 respectively.

International

Debt borrowings. In EMEA we operate a €1.7 billion European rental fleet securitization program, with maturity in 2024, which is used to finance fleet purchases for certain of our European operations. The International borrowings primarily represent floating rate notes and had a weighted average interest rate of 5.51% and 3.92% as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

Finance leases. We obtain a portion of our International vehicles under finance lease arrangements. For the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, the weighted average interest rate on these borrowings was 3.68% and 1.82% respectively. All finance leases are on a fixed repayment basis and interest rates are fixed at the contract date.

Debt Maturities

The following table provides the contractual maturities of our debt under vehicle programs, including related party debt due to Avis Budget Rental Car Funding, at December 31, 2023:

(a) Vehicle-backed debt primarily represents asset-backed securities.

(b) Includes $2.4 billion of bank and bank-sponsored facilities. These short-term borrowings have a weighted average interest rate of 4.80% as of December 31, 2023.

(c) Includes $4.5 billion of bank and bank-sponsored facilities.

(d) Includes $0.1 billion of bank and bank-sponsored facilities.

Committed Credit Facilities And Available Funding Arrangements

The following table presents available funding under our debt arrangements related to our vehicle programs, including related party debt due to Avis Budget Rental Car Funding, at December 31, 2023:

(a)Capacity is subject to maintaining sufficient assets to collateralize debt. The total capacity for Americas — Debt due to Avis Budget Rental Car Funding includes increases from an amendment and renewal of our asset-backed variable funding financing facilities during March 2023 and was most recently amended during January 2024.

(b)The outstanding debt is collateralized by vehicles and related assets of $17.4 billion for Americas - Debt due to Avis Budget Rental Car Funding; $1.5 billion for Americas - Debt borrowings; $2.8 billion for International - Debt borrowings; and $0.2 billion for International - Finance leases.

Debt Covenants

The agreements under our vehicle-backed funding programs contain restrictive covenants, including restrictions on dividends paid to us by certain of our subsidiaries and restrictions on indebtedness, mergers, liens, liquidations and sale and leaseback transactions, and in some cases also require compliance with certain financial requirements. As of December 31, 2023, we are not aware of any instances of non-compliance with any of the financial or restrictive covenants contained in the debt agreements under our vehicle-backed funding programs.

15. Commitments and Contingencies

Contingencies

In 2006, we completed the spin-offs of our Realogy and Wyndham subsidiaries (now known as Anywhere Real Estate, Inc., and Wyndham Hotels and Resorts, Inc. and Travel + Leisure Co., respectively). We do not believe that the impact of any resolution of pre-existing contingent liabilities in connection with the spin-offs should result in a material liability to us in relation to our consolidated financial position or liquidity, as Anywhere Real Estate, Inc., Wyndham Hotels and Resorts, Inc. and Travel + Leisure Co. have agreed to assume responsibility for these liabilities. In March 2023, the California Office of Tax Appeals (“OTA”) issued an opinion in a case involving notices of proposed assessment of California corporation franchise tax for tax year 1999 issued to us. The case involves whether (i) the notices of proposed assessment were barred by the statute of limitations; and (ii) a transaction undertaken by us in tax year 1999 constituted a tax-free reorganization under the Internal Revenue Code (“IRC”). The OTA concluded that the notices of proposed assessment were not barred by the statute of limitations and that the 1999 transaction was not a tax-free reorganization under the IRC. Anywhere Real Estate, Inc. has assumed 62.5%, and Wyndham Hotels and Resorts, Inc. and Travel + Leisure Co. have assumed 37.5% of the potential tax liability in this matter, respectively. We have filed a petition for rehearing and intend to vigorously pursue this matter. We are also named in litigation that is primarily related to the businesses of our former subsidiaries, including Realogy and Wyndham. We are entitled to indemnification from such entities for any liability resulting from such litigation.

In September 2014, Dawn Valli et al. v. Avis Budget Group Inc., et al. was filed in U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey. The plaintiffs seek to represent a purported nationwide class of certain renters of vehicles from our Avis and Budget subsidiaries from September 30, 2008 through the present. The plaintiffs seek damages in connection with claims relating to alleged misrepresentations and omissions concerning charging customers for traffic infractions and related administrative fees. On October 10, 2023, plaintiffs’ motion for class certification was denied as to their proposed nationwide class and granted as to a subclass, created at the Court’s discretion, of Avis Preferred and Budget Fastbreak members. We have been named as a defendant in other purported consumer class action lawsuits, includingtwo class actions filed against us in New Jersey, one seeking damages in connection with a breach of contract claim and another related to ancillary charges at our Payless subsidiary. However, the Company intends to vigorously defend them.

We are currently involved, and in the future may be involved, in claims and/or legal proceedings, including class actions, and governmental inquiries that are incidental to our vehicle rental and car sharing operations, including, among others, contract and licensee disputes, competition matters, employment and wage-and-hour claims, insurance and liability claims, intellectual property claims, business practice disputes and other regulatory, environmental, commercial and tax matters. We are a defendant in a number of legal proceedings for personal injury arising from the operation of our vehicles. In June 2023, two of our subsidiaries were named as defendants in a lawsuit filed in Dallas, Texas alleging thatone of our employees caused the death of an individual withone of our vehicles: Peggy Dawson Edwards, Individually and as Anticipated Representative of the Estate of Michael Edwards, Sr., et. al. v. Avis Budget Car Rental, LLC; PV Holding Corp.; and Kevin Barnes, Cause No. CC-23-03188-E, pending in County Court at Law No. 5 for Dallas County, Texas. The complaint alleges that our subsidiaries are responsible for Mr. Edwards’ death and seeks compensatory and punitive damages in an unspecified amount exceeding $1 million. The court has set a trial date in November 2024 for this lawsuit. Given the early stages of the legal proceedings, it is not possible to predict the outcome of the claim. However, the Company intends to vigorously defend it.

Litigation is inherently unpredictable and, although we believe that our accruals are adequate and/or that we have valid defenses in these matters, unfavorable resolutions could occur. We estimate that the potential exposure resulting from adverse outcomes of current legal proceedings in which it is reasonably possible that a loss may be incurred could, in the aggregate, be up to approximately $40 million in excess of amounts accrued as of December 31, 2023. We do not believe that the impact should result in a material liability to us in relation to our consolidated financial condition or results of operations.

Commitments to Purchase Vehicles

We maintain agreements with vehicle manufacturers under which we have agreed to purchase approximately $6.8 billion of vehicles from manufacturers over the next 12 months, which is consistent with December 31, 2022, financed primarily through the issuance of vehicle-backed debt and cash received upon the disposition of vehicles. Certain of these commitments are subject to the vehicle manufacturers satisfying their obligations under their respective repurchase and guaranteed depreciation agreements.

Other Purchase Commitments

In the normal course of business, we make various commitments to purchase other goods or services from specific suppliers, including those related to marketing, advertising, computer services and capital expenditures. As of December 31, 2023, we had approximately $149 million of purchase obligations, which extend through 2028.

Concentrations

Concentrations of credit risk at December 31, 2023, include (i) risks related to our repurchase and guaranteed depreciation agreements with domestic and foreign car manufacturers and primarily with respect to receivables for program cars that have been disposed, but for which we have not yet received payment from the manufacturers and (ii) risks related to Realogy and Wyndham, including receivables of $38 million and $23 million, respectively, related to certain contingent, income tax and other corporate liabilities assumed by Realogy and Wyndham in connection with their disposition.

Asset Retirement Obligations

We maintain a liability for asset retirement obligations. An asset retirement obligation is a legal obligation to perform certain activities in connection with the retirement, disposal or abandonment of assets. Our asset retirement obligations, which are measured at discounted fair values, are primarily related to the removal of underground fuel storage tanks at our rental facilities. The Consolidated Balance Sheets include a liability for asset retirement obligations of approximately $27 million and $26 million at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

Standard Guarantees/Indemnifications

In the ordinary course of business, we enter into numerous agreements that contain standard guarantees and indemnities whereby we agree to indemnify another party, among other things, for performance under contracts and any breaches of representations and warranties thereunder. In addition, many of these parties are also indemnified against any third-party claim resulting from the transaction that is contemplated in the underlying agreement. Such guarantees or indemnifications are granted under various agreements, including those governing (i) purchases, sales or outsourcing of assets, businesses or activities, (ii) leases of real estate, (iii) licensing of trademarks, (iv) access to credit facilities and use of derivatives and (v) issuances of debt or equity securities. The guarantees or indemnifications issued are for the benefit of the (i) buyers in sale agreements and sellers in purchase agreements, (ii) landlords in lease contracts, (iii) licensees under licensing agreements, (iv) financial institutions in credit facility arrangements and derivative contracts and (v) underwriters and placement agents in debt or equity security issuances. While some of these guarantees extend only for the duration of the underlying agreement, many may survive the expiration of the term of the agreement or extend into perpetuity (unless subject to a legal statute of limitations). There are no specific limitations on the maximum potential amount of future payments that we could be required to make under these guarantees, nor are we able to develop an estimate of the maximum potential amount of future payments to be made under these guarantees as the triggering events are not subject to predictability. With respect to certain of the aforementioned guarantees, such as indemnifications provided to landlords against third-party claims for the use of real estate property leased by us, we maintain insurance coverage that mitigates our potential exposure.

16. Stockholders' Equity

Cash Dividend Payments

In December 2023, we paid a special cash dividend of $10.00 per share to all holders of our common stock as of December 15, 2023, totaling approximately $355 million. During 2022 and 2021, we didnot declare or pay any cash dividends. Our ability to pay dividends to holders of our common stock is limited by our senior credit facility, the indentures governing our senior notes and our vehicle financing programs.

Share Repurchases

Our Board of Directors authorized the repurchase of up to approximately $8.1 billion of our common stock under a plan originally approved in 2013 and subsequently expanded most recently in February 2023 (the “Stock Repurchase Program”). During 2023, 2022 and 2021, we repurchased approximately 35.4 million shares of common stock at a cost of approximately$5.6 billion (excluding excise taxes due for 2023 repurchases under the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022) under the program. As of December 31, 2023, approximately$802 million of authorization remained available to repurchase common stock under this plan.

Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income (Loss)

The components of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) are as follows:

All components of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) are net of tax, except currency translation adjustments, which exclude income taxes related to indefinite investments in foreign subsidiaries (see Note 9 – Income Taxes) and include a $93 million gain, net of tax, related to our hedge of our investment in euro-denominated foreign operations (See Note 20 – Financial Instruments).

(a)For the year ended December 31, 2021 the amounts were reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) into restructuring and other related charges.

(b)For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, the amounts reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) into corporate interest expense were income of $18 million ($13 million, net of tax), losses of $9 million ($7 million, net of tax) and losses of $17 million ($12 million, net of tax), respectively. For the year ended December 31, 2021, the amount reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) into vehicle interest expense was losses of $2 million ($2 million, net of tax).

(c)For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, amounts reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) into selling, general and administrative expenses were losses of $5 million ($4 million, net of tax), $5 million ($3 million, net of tax) and $9 million ($7 million, net of tax), respectively.

17. Related Party Transactions

SRS Mobility Ventures, LLC

In 2021, SRS Mobility Ventures, LLC acquired a 33 1/3% Class A Membership Interest in one of our subsidiaries at fair value of $37.5 million. SRS Mobility Ventures, LLC is an affiliate of our largest shareholder, SRS Investment Management, LLC.

On September 1, 2022, through the issuance of Class B Preferred Voting Membership Interests, SRS Mobility Ventures, LLC increased their ownership in this subsidiary to 51% at a fair value of $62 million. As a result, we deconsolidated our former subsidiary, Avis Mobility Ventures LLC (“AMV”), from our financial statements and began to report our proportional share of the former subsidiary’s income or loss within other (income) expense, net in our Consolidated Statements of Operations as we do not have the ability to direct the significant activities of the former subsidiary and are therefore no longer primary beneficiary of the VIE. In August and October 2023, SRS made capital contributions to AMV, increasing their ownership to approximately 65%.

In accordance with ASC Topic 810-10-40, we must deconsolidate a subsidiary as of the date we cease to have a controlling interest in that subsidiary and recognize the gain or loss in net income at that time. The fair value of our retained investment was determined utilizing a discounted cash flow methodology based on various assumptions, including projections of future cash flows, which include forecast of future revenue and EBITDA. Upon deconsolidation, our former subsidiary had a net asset carrying amount of $49 million resulting in a gain of $10 million, which was reported within other (income) expense, net during the year ended December 31, 2022.

We continue to provide vehicles, related fleet services, and certain administrative services to AMV to support their operations. For the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, we recorded $22 million and $7 million of related income within other (income) expense, net, respectively. For the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, we recorded losses of $25 million and $10 million within other (income) expense, net, related to our equity method investment, respectively.

As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, receivables from AMV related to these services were $2 million and $6 million, respectively, and our net investment in vehicle finance lease with AMV, which is included in vehicles, net, was $31 million and $36 million, respectively. The carrying value of our equity investment in AMV as of December 31, 2023 and 2022 was approximately $24 million and $49 million, respectively, which is included in other non-current assets.

18. Stock-Based Compensation

Our Amended and Restated Equity and Incentive Plan provides for the grant of options, stock appreciation rights, restricted stock, restricted stock units (“RSUs”) and other stock- or cash-based awards to employees, directors and other individuals who perform services for us and our subsidiaries. The maximum number of shares reserved for grant of awards under the plan is 22.5 million, with approximately 3.9 million shares available as of December 31, 2023. We typically settle stock-based awards with treasury shares.

Time-based awards generally vest ratably over athree-year period following the date of grant, and performance- or market-based awards generally vest three years following the date of grant based on the attainment of performance- or market-based goals, all of which are subject to a service condition.

Stock Unit Awards

Stock unit awards entitle the holder to receive shares of common stock upon vesting on a one-to-one basis. Certain performance-based RSUs vest based upon the level of performance attained, but vesting can increase (typically by up to 20%) if certain relative total shareholder return goals are achieved. Market-based RSUs generally vest based on the level of total shareholder return or absolute stock price attainment.

As part of our declaration and payment of a special cash dividend in December 2023, we granted additional RSUs to our award holders with unvested shares as a dividend equivalent, which has been deferred until, and will not be paid unless, the shares of stock underlying the award vest.

In 2020, we granted market-based RSUs that vest based on absolute stock price attainment. The grant date fair value of this award is estimated using a Monte Carlo simulation model. The weighted average assumptions used in the model are outlined in the table below. During the years ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, we did not issue any stock unit awards containing a market condition.

Annual activity related to stock units consisted of (in thousands of shares):

(a)Reflects the maximum number of stock units assuming achievement of all performance-, market- and time-vesting criteria and does not include those for non-employee directors, which are discussed separately below. The weighted-average fair value of time-based RSUs, and performance-based and market-based RSUs granted in 2022 was $172.34 and $193.48, respectively, and the weighted-average fair value of time-based RSUs and performance-based RSUs granted in 2021 was $65.23 and $62.27, respectively.

(b)The total fair value of RSUs vested during 2023, 2022 and 2021 was $21 million, $22 million and $17 million, respectively.

(c)Aggregate unrecognized compensation expense related to time-based RSUs and performance-based and market-based RSUs amounted to $45 million and will be recognized over a weighted average vesting period of 1.0 year.

Non-employee Directors Deferred Compensation Plan

We grant stock awards on an annual basis to non-employee directors representing between 50% and 100% of a director’s annual compensation and such awards could be deferred under the Non-employee Directors Deferred Compensation Plan. During 2023, 2022 and 2021, we granted 4,000,2,500, and 8,800 awards, respectively, to non-employee directors.

Stock-Compensation Expense

During 2023, 2022 and 2021, we recorded stock-based compensation expense of $30 million ($21 million, net of tax), $25 million ($17 million, net of tax), and $30 million ($21 million, net of tax), respectively.

19. Employee Benefit Plans

Defined Contribution Savings Plans

We sponsor several defined contribution savings plans in the United States and certain foreign subsidiaries that provide certain of our eligible employees an opportunity to accumulate funds for retirement. We match portions of the contributions of participating employees on the basis specified by the plans. Our contributions to these plans were $29 million, $26 million, and $22 million during 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

Defined Benefit Pension Plans

We sponsor defined benefit pension plans in the United States and in certain foreign subsidiaries with some plans offering participation in the plans at the employees’ option. Under these plans, benefits are based on an employee’s years of credited service and a percentage of final average compensation. However, the majority of the plans are closed to new employees and participants are no longer accruing benefits.

The funded status of the defined benefit pension plans is recognized on the Consolidated Balance Sheets and the gains or losses and prior service costs or credits that arise during the period, but are not recognized as components of net periodic benefit cost, are recognized as a component of accumulated other comprehensive loss, net of tax.

The components of net periodic (benefit) cost consisted of the following:

(a)For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022, and 2021, $3 million, $4 million, and $4 million was included in operating expenses, respectively. For the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, $1 million, and $2 million was included in selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively.

(b)Included inselling, general and administrative expenses.

We use a measurement date of December 31 for our pension plans. The funded status of the pension plans were as follows:

Amounts recognized in the statement of financial position consist of the following:

The following assumptions were used to determine pension obligations and pension costs for the principal plans in which our employees participated:

To select discount rates for our defined benefit pension plans, we use a modeling process that involves matching the expected cash outflows of such plans, to yield curves constructed from portfolios of AA-rated fixed-income debt instruments. We use the average yields of the hypothetical portfolios as a discount rate benchmark.

Our expected rate of return on plan assets of 6.25% and 5.59% for the U.S. plans and non-U.S. plans, respectively, used to determine pension obligations and pension costs, are long-term rates based on historic plan asset returns in individual jurisdictions, over varying long-term periods combined with current market expectations and broad asset mix considerations.

As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, plans with projected benefit obligations in excess of plan assets had projected benefit obligations of $350 million and $332 million, respectively, and plan assets of $246 million and $235 million, respectively. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, plans with accumulated benefit obligations in excess of plan assets had accumulated benefit obligations of $346 million and $329 million, respectively, and plan assets of $246 million and $235 million, respectively. The accumulated benefit obligation for all plans was $615 million and $571 million as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. We expect to contribute approximately $1 million to the plans in 2024.

Our defined benefit pension plans’ assets are invested primarily in mutual funds and may change in value due to various risks, such as interest rate and credit risk and overall market volatility. Due to the level of risk associated with investment securities, it is reasonably possible that changes in the values of the pension plans’ investment securities will occur in the near term and that such changes would materially affect the amounts reported in our financial statements.

The defined benefit pension plans’ investment goals and objectives are managed by us or Company-appointed and member-appointed trustees with consultation from independent investment advisors. While the objectives may vary slightly by country and jurisdiction, collectively we seek to produce returns on pension plan investments, which are based on levels of liquidity and investment risk that we believe are prudent and reasonable, given prevailing capital market conditions. The pension plans’ assets are managed in the long-term interests of the participants and the beneficiaries of the plans. A suitable strategic asset allocation benchmark is determined for each plan to maintain a diversified portfolio, taking into account government requirements, if any, regarding unnecessary investment risk and protection of pension plans’ assets. We believe that diversification of the pension plans’ assets is an important investment strategy to provide reasonable assurance that no single security or class of securities will have a disproportionate impact on the pension plans. As such, we allocate assets among traditional equity, fixed income (government issued securities, corporate bonds and short-term cash investments) and other investment strategies.

The equity component’s purpose is to provide a total return that will help preserve the purchasing power of the assets. The pension plans hold various mutual funds that invest in equity securities and are diversified among funds that invest in large cap, small cap, growth, value and international stocks as well as funds that are intended to “track” an index, such as the S&P 500. The equity investments in the portfolios will represent a greater assumption of market volatility and risk as well as provide higher anticipated total return over the long term. The equity component is expected to approximate 35%-55% of the plans’ assets.

The purpose of the fixed income component is to provide a deflation hedge, to reduce the overall volatility of the pension plans’ assets in relation to the liability and to produce current income. The pension plans hold mutual funds that invest in securities issued by governments, government agencies and corporations. The fixed income component is expected to approximate 35%-55% of the plans’ assets.

The purpose of the alternative investment component is to provide diversification and risk reduction through less correlated investment strategies with the goal of enhanced returns and downside protection. Alternative strategies will not be used if they are designed solely to enhance return and/or employ significant leverage. Diversification of asset categories, investment styles and managers is central to managing investment risk. The alternative investment component is expected to approximate 5%-15% of the plans’ assets.

The following table presents the defined benefit pension plans’ assets measured at fair value:

For the year ended December 31, 2023, we purchased and classified $11 million of investments as Level 3.

For the year ended December 31, 2022, we purchased and classified $54 million of investments as Level 3.

We estimate that future benefit payments from plan assets will be$33 million, $33 million, $34 million, $35 million, $36 million and $194 million for 2024, 2025, 2026, 2027, 2028 and 2029 to 2033, respectively.

Multiemployer Plans

We contribute to a number of multiemployer plans under the terms of collective-bargaining agreements that cover a portion of our employees. The risks of participating in these multiemployer plans are different from single-employer plans in the following aspects: (i) assets contributed to the multiemployer plan by one employer may be used to provide benefits to employees of other participating employers; (ii) if a participating employer stops contributing to the plan, the unfunded obligations of the plan may be borne by the remaining participating employers; (iii) if we elect to stop participating in a multiemployer plan, we may be required to contribute to such plan an amount based on the under-funded status of the plan; and (iv) we have no involvement in the management of the multiemployer plans’ investments. For the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022, and 2021, we contributed $10 million, $8 million and $7 million, respectively, to multiemployer plans.

20. Financial Instruments

Risk Management

Currency Risk. We use currency exchange contracts to manage our exposure to changes in currency exchange rates associated with certain of our non-U.S.-dollar denominated receivables and forecasted royalties, forecasted earnings of non-U.S. subsidiaries and forecasted non-U.S. dollar denominated acquisitions. We primarily hedge a portion of our current-year currency exposure to the Australian, Canadian and New Zealand dollars, the euro and the British pound sterling. The majority of forward contracts do not qualify for hedge accounting treatment. The fluctuations in the value of these forward contracts do, however, largely offset the impact of changes in the value of the underlying risk they economically hedge. Forward contracts used to hedge forecasted third-party receipts and disbursements up to 12 months are designated and do qualify as cash flow hedges. We have designated our euro-denominated notes as a hedge of our investment in euro-denominated foreign operations.

The estimated net amount of existing gains or losses we expect to reclassify from accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) to earnings for cash flow and net investment hedges over the next 12 months is not material.

Interest Rate Risk. We use various hedging strategies including interest rate swaps and interest rate caps to create what we deem an appropriate mix of fixed and floating rate assets and liabilities. We use interest rate swaps and interest rate caps to manage the risk related to our floating rate corporate debt and our floating rate vehicle-backed debt. We record the changes in the fair value of our cash flow hedges to other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax, and subsequently reclassify these amounts into earnings in the period during which the hedged transaction affects earnings and is presented in the same income statement line item as the earnings effect of the hedged item. We record the gains or losses related to freestanding derivatives, which are not designated as a hedge for accounting purposes, currently in earnings and are presented in the same line of the income statement expected for the hedged item. We estimate that approximately $24 million of gain currently recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) will be recognized in earnings over the next 12 months.

Commodity Risk. We periodically enter into derivative commodity contracts to manage our exposure to changes in the price of fuel. These instruments were designated as freestanding derivatives and the changes in fair value are recorded in earnings and are presented in the same line of the income statement expected for the hedged item.

Credit Risk and Exposure. We are exposed to counterparty credit risks in the event of nonperformance by counterparties to various agreements and sales transactions. We manage such risk by evaluating the financial position and creditworthiness of such counterparties and by requiring collateral in certain instances in which financing is provided. We mitigate counterparty credit risk associated with our derivative contracts by monitoring the amount for which we are at risk with each counterparty, periodically evaluating counterparty creditworthiness and financial position, and where possible, dispersing our risk among multiple counterparties.

There were no significant concentrations of credit risk with any individual counterparty or groups of counterparties at December 31, 2023 or 2022, other than (i) risks related to our repurchase and guaranteed depreciation agreements with domestic and foreign car manufacturers, and primarily with respect to receivables for program cars that were disposed but for which we have not yet received payment from the manufacturers (see Note 2 – Summary of Significant Accounting Policies), (ii) receivables from Realogy and Wyndham related to certain contingent, income tax and other corporate liabilities assumed by Realogy and Wyndham in connection with their disposition and (iii) risks related to leases which have been assumed by Realogy but of which we are a guarantor. Concentrations of credit risk associated with trade receivables are considered minimal due to our diverse customer base. We do not normally require collateral or other security to support credit sales.

Fair Value

Derivative instruments and hedging activities

As described above, derivative assets and liabilities consist principally of currency exchange contracts, interest rate swaps, interest rate caps and commodity contracts. We held derivative instruments with absolute notional values as follows:

(a)Represents $10.3 billion of interest rate caps sold, partially offset by approximately $4.9 billion of interest rate caps purchased at December 31, 2023 and $9.8 billion of interest rate caps sold, partially offset by approximately $4.4 billion of interest rate caps purchased at December 31, 2022. These amounts exclude $5.9 billion and $6.2 billion of interest rate caps purchased by our Avis Budget Rental Car Funding subsidiary at December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

Fair values (Level 2) of derivative instruments are as follows:

Amounts in this table exclude derivatives issued by Avis Budget Rental Car Funding, as it is not consolidated by us; however, certain amounts related to the derivatives held by Avis Budget Rental Car Funding are included within accumulated other comprehensive income (loss), as discussed in Note 16 – Stockholders' Equity.

(a)Included in other non-current assets or other non-current liabilities.

(b)Included in other current assets or other current liabilities.

(c)Included in assets under vehicle programs or liabilities under vehicle programs.

The effects of derivatives recognized in our Consolidated Financial Statements are as follows:

(a)Recognized, net of tax, as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) within stockholders’ equity.

(b)Classified as a net unrealized gain (loss) on cash flow hedges in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss). Refer to Note 16 – Stockholders' Equity for amounts reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) into earnings.

(c)Classified as a net investment hedge within currency translation adjustment in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss).

(d)Gains (losses) related to derivative instruments are expected to be largely offset by (losses) gains on the underlying exposures being hedged.

(e)For the year ended December 31, 2023, included a $14 million loss in interest expense and a $2 million gain in operating expenses. For the year ended December 31, 2022, included a $39 million gain in interest expense and a $3 million loss in operating expenses. For the year ended December 31, 2021, included a $2 million loss in interest expense and a $1 million loss in operating expenses.

(f)Primarily included in vehicle interest, net.

Debt Instruments

The carrying amounts and estimated fair values (Level 2) of debt instruments are as follows:

(a)Derivatives in liability position.

21. Segment Information

Our chief operating decision-maker assesses performance and allocates resources based upon the separate financial information of our operating segments. In identifying our reportable segments, we also consider the nature of services provided by our operating segments, the geographical areas in which the segments operate and other relevant factors. We aggregate certain of our operating segments into our reportable segments.

Management evaluates the operating results of each of our reportable segments based upon revenues and Adjusted EBITDA, which we define as income (loss) from continuing operations before non-vehicle related depreciation and amortization; any impairment charges; restructuring and other related charges; early extinguishment of debt costs; non-vehicle related interest; transaction-related costs, net; charges for legal matters, net, which includes amounts recorded in excess of $5 million related to class action lawsuits and personal injury matters; non-operational charges related to shareholder activist activity, which includes third-party advisory, legal and other professional fees; COVID-19 charges, net; cloud computing costs; other (income) expense, net, and income taxes.

We believe Adjusted EBITDA is useful as a supplemental measure in evaluating the performance of our operating businesses and in comparing our results from period to period. We also believe that Adjusted EBITDA is useful to investors because it allows them to assess our results of operations and financial condition on the same basis that management uses internally. Our presentation of Adjusted EBITDA may not be comparable to similarly-titled measures used by other companies.

Year Ended December 31, 2023

Year Ended December 31, 2022

Year Ended December 31, 2021

Provided below is a reconciliation of Adjusted EBITDA to income before income taxes.

(a)Primarily consists of gains or losses related to our equity investment in a former subsidiary, offset by fleet related and certain administrative services provided to the same former subsidiary.

The geographic segment information provided below is classified based on the geographic location of our subsidiaries.

22. Subsequent Event

In January 2024, our Avis Budget Rental Car Funding (AESOP) LLC subsidiary issued $1.2 billion of asset-backed notes to investors with an expected final payment date of June 2029 and a weighted average interest rate of 5.51%.

Schedule II – Valuation and Qualifying Accounts

(in millions)

(a)Primarily currency translation adjustments.