SELECTIVE INSURANCE GROUP INC

Note 1. Organization

Selective Insurance Group, Inc., through its subsidiaries, (collectively referred to as “we,” “us,” or “our”) offers standard commercial, standard personal, and excess and surplus ("E&S") lines property and casualty insurance products. Selective Insurance Group, Inc. (referred to as the “Parent”) was incorporated in New Jersey in 1977 and its corporate headquarters is located in Branchville, New Jersey. The Parent’s common and preferred stock are publicly traded on the Nasdaq Global Select Market under the symbols “SIGI” and "SIGIP," respectively. We have provided a glossary of terms as Exhibit 99.1 to this Form 10-K, which defines certain industry-specific and other terms that are used in this Form 10-K.

We classify our business into four reportable segments, which are as follows:

•Standard Commercial Lines – comprised of property and casualty insurance products and services provided in the standard marketplace to commercial enterprises, which are typically businesses, non-profit organizations, and local government agencies.

•Standard Personal Lines – comprised of property and casualty insurance products and services, including flood insurance coverage, provided primarily to individuals acquiring coverage in the standard marketplace.

•E&S Lines – comprised of property and casualty insurance products and services provided to customers who are unable to obtain coverage in the standard marketplace.

•Investments – invests the premiums collected by our insurance operations, as well as amounts generated through our capital management strategies, which may include the issuance of debt and equity securities.

Note 2. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies

(a)Principles of Consolidation

The accompanying consolidated financial statements (“Financial Statements”) include the accounts of the Parent and its subsidiaries, and have been prepared in conformity with: (i) United States ("U.S.") generally accepted accounting principles ("GAAP"); and (ii) the rules and regulations of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”). All significant intercompany accounts and transactions are eliminated in consolidation.

(b)Use of Estimates

The preparation of our Financial Statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported financial statement balances, as well as the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

(c)Investments

Portfolio Composition and Presentation in the Consolidated Balance Sheet

Our investment portfolio is primarily comprised of fixed income securities. We also hold commercial mortgage loans ("CMLs"), equity securities, short-term investments, alternative investments, and other investments. A description of our portfolio holdings, and the related presentation in our Consolidated Balance Sheet, is provided below.

Fixed Income Investments

Our fixed income investments include our fixed income securities portfolio and our CML portfolio.

Fixed Income Securities

We hold the following types of securities in our fixed income securities portfolio:

•U.S. government and government agency obligations;

•Foreign government obligations;

•Obligations of states and political subdivisions, including special revenue and general obligation bonds;

•Corporate securities, which may include investment grade and below investment grade bonds, bank loan investments, redeemable preferred stock, and non-redeemable preferred stock with certain debt-like characteristics;

•Collateralized loan obligations ("CLOs") and other asset-backed securities ("ABS");

•Residential mortgage-backed securities ("RMBS"); and

•Commercial mortgage-backed securities ("CMBS").

We have designated substantially all of the holdings in our fixed income securities as available-for-sale ("AFS"). These securities are reported at fair value in our Consolidated Balance Sheet. The after-tax difference between fair value and cost or amortized cost is reflected in stockholders’ equity as a component of accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) ("AOCI").

The amortized cost of fixed income securities is adjusted for the amortization of premiums and the accretion of discounts over the expected life of the security using the effective yield method. Callable debt securities held at a premium are amortized to the earliest call date. Premiums and discounts arising from the purchase of RMBS, CMBS, CLO and other ABS are amortized over the expected life of the security based on future principal payments, giving additional consideration to prepayments. These prepayments are estimated based on historical and projected cash flows. Prepayment assumptions are reviewed quarterly and adjusted to reflect actual prepayments and changes in expectations. Future amortization of any premium and/or discount is adjusted to reflect the revised assumptions.

Accrued interest on our fixed income securities is recorded as a component of “Accrued investment income” on our Consolidated Balance Sheet. If accrued interest is due but not paid within 90 days, we reverse the delinquent amount and record this reversal through earnings as a component of “Net investment income earned” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

CMLs

CMLs are loans secured by commercial property, such as an office building, multi-family apartment complex, industrial warehouse, or shopping center. We may acquire investments in CMLs through (i) direct originations under a loan syndication arrangement or (ii) a marketplace purchase. We record our investment in CMLs on the settlement date of the loan. Our CMLs are reported at amortized cost, net of any allowance for credit losses ("ACL"), on our Consolidated Balance Sheet. Interest is recorded using the effective yield method and accrued interest on our CMLs is recorded as a component of “Accrued investment income” on our Consolidated Balance Sheet.

Other Portfolio Holdings

Equity securities may include common and non-redeemable preferred stocks. Equity securities with readily determinable fair values are reported at fair value. Equity securities without readily determinable fair values are reported at net asset value ("NAV") as a practical expedient.

Short-term investments may include money market instruments, savings accounts, commercial paper, and fixed income securities purchased with a maturity of less than one year. We may also enter into reverse repurchase agreements that are included in short-term investments. These repurchase agreements are fully collateralized by high-quality, readily-marketable instruments that support the principal amount. At maturity, we receive principal and interest income on these agreements. Short-term investments are generally reported at fair value.

Alternative investments are limited partnership investments in private equity, private credit, and real estate strategies. These alternative investments are accounted for using the equity method, with income typically recognized on a one-quarter lag. Because these alternative investments are recorded under the equity method of accounting, with the underlying holdings carried at fair value, the valuation and income recognized on these investments may be impacted by volatility in the financial markets.

We categorize distributions from our equity method investments on our Consolidated Statement of Cash Flows using the cumulative earnings approach. Under this approach, distributions received are classified as cash flows from operating activities until such time that the cumulative distributions exceed cumulative earnings for the investment. When such an excess occurs, the excess portion of the current period distribution is considered a return of investment and is classified as a cash flow from investing activities.

We evaluate our alternative investments to determine whether those investments are variable interest entities ("VIEs") and if so, whether consolidation is required. A VIE is an entity that either has equity investors that lack certain essential characteristics of a controlling financial interest or lack sufficient funds to finance its own activities without financial support provided by other entities. We consider several significant factors in determining if our investments are VIEs and if we are the primary beneficiary, including whether we have (i) the power to direct activities of the VIE, (ii) the ability to remove the decision maker of the VIE, (iii) the ability to participate in making decisions that are significant to the VIE, and (iv) the obligation to absorb losses and the right to receive benefits that could potentially be significant to the VIE. We have reviewed our alternative investments and have concluded that they are VIEs, but that we are not the primary beneficiary and therefore, consolidation is not required.

Our other investment portfolio includes Federal Home Loan Bank stock (“FHLB Stock”) and tax credit investments. The FHLB Stock is reported at cost.

Accounting for our tax credit investments is dependent on the type of credit we have purchased, as follows:

•Federal low income housing tax credits are accounted for under the proportional amortization method; and

•All other tax credits in our investment portfolio are accounted for using the equity method.

For federal tax credits accounted for under the equity method, we use the deferral method for recognizing the benefit of the tax credit with the related deferred revenue being recognized in our Consolidated Income Statement as a component of "Federal income tax expense" proportionately over the life of the investment.

Presentation in the Consolidated Statement of Income

Net Investment Income Earned

Net investment income earned on our Consolidated Statement of Income includes the following:

•Interest income, as well as amortization and accretion, on fixed income securities;

•Interest income on CMLs;

•Dividend income on equity securities;

•Interest income on our short-term investments; and

•Income recognized on our alternative and other investments accounted for under the equity method of accounting, except for federal tax credits, as discussed below.

Income related to federal tax credits (either low income housing tax credits or other federal credits) is recorded in our Consolidated Statement of Income as a component of “Federal income tax expense” proportionately over the life of the investment.

Net Realized and Unrealized Investment (Losses) Gains

Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses) on our Consolidated Statement of Income include the following:

•Realized gains and losses on the disposal of holdings in our investment portfolio, which are determined on the basis of the cost of the specific investments sold;

•Changes in unrealized gains or losses on our equity securities;

•Losses on investments for which we have the intent to sell, which are discussed further below; and

•Net credit loss expense or benefit resulting from changes in the ACL related to our investment portfolio, which is also discussed further below.

Losses on Investments for which we have the Intent to Sell

For our AFS fixed income securities and short-term investments, we review our fixed income securities in an unrealized loss position to determine (i) if we have the intent to sell the security, or (ii) if it is more likely than not we will be required to sell the security before its anticipated recovery. If we determine that we have the intent or likely requirement to sell the security, we write down its amortized cost to its fair value. In writing down amortized cost, any amount previously recorded as an ACL is reversed and any incremental reduction in amortized cost is recorded directly to earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

For our alternative and other investments, if we determine that we intend to sell a holding and the expected proceeds are less than the recorded value of the investment, we will record a loss on those securities we intend to sell in earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

After reviewing our portfolio, if (i) we do not have the intent to sell, or (ii) it is more likely than not we will not be required to sell the security before its anticipated recovery, then our intent is to hold the investment securities to recovery, or maturity if necessary to recover the decline in valuation as prices accrete to par. However, our intent may change prior to maturity due to certain types of events, which include, but are not limited to, changes in the financial markets, our analysis of an issuer’s credit metrics and prospects, changes in tax laws or the regulatory environment, or as a result of significant unforeseen changes in liquidity needs. As such, we may, from time to time, sell invested assets subsequent to the balance sheet date that we did not intend to sell at the balance sheet date. Conversely, we may not sell invested assets that we asserted we intended to sell at the balance sheet date. Such changes in intent are due to unforeseen events occurring subsequent to the balance sheet date.

ACL on AFS Fixed Income Securities and Short-Term Investments

When fixed income securities are in an unrealized loss position and we do not record any losses on securities for which we intend to sell, we record an ACL for the portion of the unrealized loss due to an expected credit loss. We estimate expected credit losses on fixed income securities with certain credit qualities by performing a discounted cash flow (“DCF”). The ACL is equal to the excess of amortized cost over the greater of: (i) our estimate of the present value of expected future cash flows, or (ii) fair value. The ACL is recorded as a contra-asset reflected in the carrying value of the investment on the Consolidated Balance Sheet. The initial ACL and any subsequent changes are recorded to earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income. Any remaining unrealized loss is the non-credit amount and is recorded in AOCI. The ACL cannot exceed the unrealized loss of an AFS security and therefore it may fluctuate with changes in the fair value of the security. The ACL is written off against the amortized cost basis in the period in which it is determined uncollectible.

Our DCF analyses calculate the present value of expected future cash flows using various models specific to the major security types in our portfolio. These models use security-specific information, as well as reasonable and forecasted macroeconomic data, to determine possible expected credit loss scenarios based on projected changes in the economy. The forecasted economic data incorporated into the models is based on the Federal Reserve Board’s annual supervisory stress test review on certain large banks and financial institutions. We also have the ability to incorporate internally-developed forecast information into the models as we deem appropriate.

The discount rate used in a DCF is one of the following:

•The current yield in effect at the reporting date to accrete the beneficial interest for RMBS, CMBS, CLO and other ABS that were not of high credit quality at acquisition;

•The effective interest rate in effect as of the reporting date for non-fixed rate securities; and

•The effective interest rate implicit in the security at the date of acquisition for all other securities.

DCFs may include, but are not necessarily limited to: (i) generating cash flows for each tranche considering tranche-specific data, market data, and other pertinent information, such as the historical performance of the underlying collateral, including net operating income generated by underlying properties, conditional default rate assumptions, loan loss severity assumptions, consensus projections, prepayment projections, and actual pool and collateral information; (ii) identifying applicable benchmark yields; and (iii) applying market-based tranche specific spreads to determine an appropriate yield by incorporating collateral performance, tranche-level attributes, trades, bids, and offers.

We do not record a valuation allowance on the accrued interest balance associated with our fixed income securities as we reverse delinquent amounts on a timely basis. We consider a fixed income security to be past due at the time any principal or interest payments become 90 days delinquent.

ACL on CMLs

We evaluate our CMLs on a quarterly basis for expected credit losses. If we hold a CML with a specific credit concern, we record an individual ACL on that loan. For all other CMLs, we record an ACL on the pool of loans based on lifetime expected credit losses. The ACL is recorded as a contra-asset reflected in the carrying value of our CMLs on the Consolidated Balance Sheet. Our initial ACL and any subsequent changes are recorded to earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

We utilize a forecasting model to estimate lifetime expected credit losses at a loan level under multiple economic scenarios. The scenarios apply reasonable and forecasted macroeconomic data such as unemployment, inflation, and rent assumptions to project property-specific operating income and capitalization rates that are used to estimate the value of the future operating income stream. This information, coupled with historical data about mortgage loan performance, is used to project the probability of default, the amount of loss given a default, and the resulting lifetime expected loss.

Credit Losses on Alternative Investments

We review our alternative investment portfolio for potential credit losses through quarterly fund reports and conversations with the general partners of the alternative investments concerning the following:

•The current investment strategy;

•Changes made or future changes to be made to the investment strategy;

•Emerging issues that may affect the success of the strategy; and

•The appropriateness of the valuation methodology used regarding the underlying investments.

Credit Losses on Other Investments

Our evaluation for potential credit loss on tax credits and FHLB Stock include a qualitative assessment of credit indicators, which include, but are not limited to, the following:

•An adverse development of the expected receipt of remaining tax credits and other tax benefits; and

•A significant deterioration in the financial condition or liquidity of the Federal Home Loan Bank of Indiana or New York.

If we do not intend to sell a security, and we expect a credit loss on a holding in our alternative or other investments portfolio, we record a charge to earnings as a component of “Net realized and unrealized investment gains (losses)” on our Consolidated Statement of Income.

(d)Fair Values of Financial Instruments

Assets

The fair values of our investments are generated using various valuation techniques and are placed into the fair value hierarchy considering the following: (i) the highest priority is given to quoted prices in active markets for identical assets (Level 1); (ii) the next highest priority is given to quoted prices in markets that are not active or inputs that are observable either directly or indirectly, including quoted prices for similar assets in markets that are not active and other inputs that can be derived principally from, or corroborated by, observable market data for substantially the full term of the assets (Level 2); and (iii) the lowest priority is given to unobservable inputs supported by little or no market activity and that reflect our assumptions about the exit price, including assumptions that market participants would use in pricing the asset (Level 3). An asset’s classification within the fair value hierarchy is based on the lowest level of significant input to its valuation.

The techniques used to value our financial assets are as follows:

Level 1 Pricing

Level 2 Pricing

We utilize a market approach for our Level 2 securities, using primarily matrix pricing models prepared by external pricing services. Matrix pricing models use mathematical techniques to value fixed income securities by relying on the securities' relationship to other benchmark quoted securities, and not relying exclusively on quoted prices for specific securities, as the specific securities are not always frequently traded. As a matter of policy, we consistently use one pricing service as our primary source and secondary pricing services if prices are not available from the primary pricing service. Fixed income security pricing is reviewed for reasonableness by (i) comparing our pricing to other third-party pricing services as well as benchmark indexed pricing, (ii) comparing fair value fluctuations between months for reasonableness, (iii) reviewing stale prices, and (iv) internally reviewing prices for reasonableness if a price from another third-party source is not available. If further analysis is needed, a challenge is sent to the pricing service for review and confirmation of the price.

Further information on our Level 2 asset pricing is included in the following table:

Level 3 Pricing

In addition to our CML portfolio, certain securities in our AFS fixed income securities portfolio are priced using (i) unobservable inputs, such as illiquidity spreads, (ii) broker quotes, or (iii) information received from other third-party sources, for which there is a lack of transparency as to the inputs used to generate the valuation. The quantitative detail of these unobservable inputs is neither provided to us, nor reasonably available to us.

Liabilities

The techniques used to value our notes payable are as follows:

Level 2 Pricing

(e)Allowance for Credit Losses on Premiums Receivable

We estimate an ACL on our outstanding premiums receivable balance at each reporting date. In determining this allowance, we use a method that considers the aging of the receivable, based on the effective year of the related policy, along with our historical receivable loss experience. We also contemplate expected macroeconomic conditions over the expected collection period, which are short-term in nature because the majority of the balances are collected within two years of policy issuance.

Changes in our ACL are charged to earnings as credit loss expense or benefit, which is a component of "Other insurance expenses" on our Consolidated Statements of Income, with an offsetting ACL recorded as a contra-asset reflected in the carrying value of the receivable. We charge write-offs against the allowance when we determine the account to be uncollectible after considering information obtained from our collection efforts.

(f)Share-Based Compensation

Share-based compensation consists of all share-based payment transactions in which an entity acquires goods or services by issuing (or offering to issue) its shares, share units, share options, or other equity instruments. The cost resulting from all share-based payment transactions are recognized in the Financial Statements based on the fair value of both equity and liability awards. The fair value is measured at grant date for equity awards, whereas the fair value for liability awards are remeasured at each reporting period. The fair value of both equity and liability awards is recognized over the requisite service period. The requisite service period is typically the lesser of the vesting period or the period of time from the grant date to the date of retirement eligibility. The expense recognized for share-based awards, which, in some cases, contain performance criteria, is based on the number of shares or units expected to be issued at the end of the performance period. We repurchase the Parent’s stock from our employees in connection with tax withholding obligations, as permitted under our stock-based compensation plans. This activity is disclosed in our Consolidated Statement of Stockholders' Equity.

(g)Reinsurance

The “Reinsurance recoverable” balance on our Consolidated Balance Sheet represents our estimate of amounts that will be recovered from reinsurers under our various treaties. Generally, amounts recoverable from reinsurers are recognized as assets at the same time and in a manner consistent with the paid and unpaid losses associated with the reinsured policies. We would consider a recoverable balance from a reinsurer to be past due if payment is not received by the first day following the invoice due date. We require collateral to secure reinsurance recoverable balances primarily from our reinsurance carriers that are not authorized, otherwise approved, or certified to do business in one or more of our ten insurance subsidiaries' domiciliary states. Our ten insurance subsidiaries are collectively referred to as the "Insurance Subsidiaries." The collateral received is typically in the form of a letter of credit, trust funds, or funds withheld against reinsurance recoverables.

We have a reinsurance agreement with a special purpose insurer ("SPI"). The reinsurance agreement meets the requirements to be accounted for as reinsurance in accordance with the guidance for reinsurance contracts. At the time of entering into the agreement, we evaluated the applicability of the VIE accounting guidance. A VIE is an entity that either has equity investors that lack certain essential characteristics of a controlling financial interest or lack sufficient funds to finance its own activities without financial support provided by other entities. We considered several significant factors in determining if the SPI is a VIE and if we are the primary beneficiary, including whether we have (i) the power to direct activities of the VIE, (ii) the ability to remove the decision maker of the VIE, (iii) the ability to participate in making decisions that are significant to the VIE, and (iv) the obligation to absorb losses and the right to receive benefits that could potentially be significant to the VIE. As a result of the evaluation of the reinsurance agreement with the SPI, we concluded that it was a VIE. However, we do not have a variable interest in the entity, as the variability in its results, caused by the reinsurance agreement, is expected to be absorbed entirely by the investors in the senior notes issued by the SPI, and residual amounts earned by it, if any, are expected to be absorbed by the equity investors. We have neither an equity nor a residual interest in the SPI.

Accordingly, we are not the primary beneficiary of the SPI and do not consolidate that entity in our Financial Statements. Additionally, because we have no intention to pursue any transaction that would result in it acquiring interest in and becoming the primary beneficiary of the SPI, the consolidation of that entity in our Financial Statements in future periods is unlikely. Refer to Note 9. "Reinsurance" for more information on this transaction.

We estimate an ACL on our outstanding reinsurance recoverable balance at each reporting date. Credit risk is mitigated to the extent we have obtained collateral. As part of our estimation of the ACL, we reduce the recoverable balance by the amount of the collateral. We then pool the uncollateralized balances by similar risk characteristics, including the financial strength rating of the reinsurer, and use a probability-of-default methodology to calculate the allowance. Historical default rates are sourced from AM Best Company ("AM Best") and are coupled with severity assumptions in developing a baseline scenario. We then stress this scenario by incorporating forecasts of industry catastrophe losses and economic factors sourced through third-party data providers. In developing our best estimate of the allowance for credit losses, we consider our outlook as to the probability of each of these scenarios occurring.

Changes in our ACL are charged to earnings as credit loss expense, which is a component of “Loss and loss expense incurred” on our Consolidated Statement of Income, with an offsetting ACL recorded as a contra-asset reflected in the carrying value of the recoverable balance. We charge write-offs against the ACL when we determine the recoverable balance to be uncollectible after considering information obtained from our efforts to collect amounts due or through a review of the financial condition of the reinsurer.

(h)Property and Equipment

Property and equipment used in operations, including certain costs incurred to develop or obtain computer software for internal use, are capitalized and recorded at cost less accumulated depreciation. Depreciation is calculated using the straight-line method over the estimated useful lives of the assets. The following estimated useful lives can be considered as general guidelines:

We recorded depreciation expense of $24.7 million, $24.6 million, and $24.3 million for 2023, 2022, and 2021, respectively.

(i)Deferred Policy Acquisition Costs

Deferred policy acquisition costs are limited to costs directly related to the successful acquisition of insurance contracts. Costs meeting this definition typically include, among other things, sales commissions paid to our distribution partners, premium taxes, and the portion of employee salaries and benefits directly related to time spent on acquired contracts. These costs are deferred and amortized over the life of the contracts.

Accounting guidance requires a premium deficiency analysis to be performed at the level an entity acquires, services, and measures the profitability of its insurance contracts. We currently perform three premium deficiency analyses for our insurance operations, consistent with our reportable segments of Standard Commercial Lines, Standard Personal Lines, and E&S Lines. A combined ratio of over 100% does not necessarily indicate a premium deficiency, as any year's combined ratio includes a portion of underwriting expenses that are expensed at policy inception and therefore are not covered by the remaining unearned premium. In addition, investment income is not contemplated in the combined ratio calculation.

There were no premium deficiencies for any of the reported years, as the sum of the anticipated loss and loss expense, unamortized acquisition costs, policyholder dividends, and other expenses for each segment did not exceed that segment’s related unearned premium and anticipated investment income. The investment yields assumed in the premium deficiency assessment for each reporting period, which were based on our actual average investment yield, before tax, as of the September 30 calculation date, were 4.8% for 2023,3.5% for 2022, and 4.3% for 2021.

(j)Goodwill

Goodwill results from business acquisitions where the cost of assets and liabilities acquired exceeds the fair value of those assets and liabilities. A quantitative goodwill impairment analysis is performed if our quarterly qualitative analysis indicates that it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. Goodwill is allocated to the reporting units for purposes of these analyses. Based on our analysis at December 31, 2023, goodwill was not impaired.

(k)Reserve for Loss and Loss Expense

Reserve for loss and loss expense includes case reserves on reported claims and reserves for incurred but not reported ("IBNR") losses. Case reserves are estimated for each individual claim based on the facts and circumstances known at the time about the claim. Case reserves may be adjusted up or down as the claim's facts and circumstances change. IBNR reserves are established at more aggregated levels and include provisions for (i) claims not yet reported, (ii) future development on reported claims, (iii) previously closed claims that could reopen in the future, and (iv) anticipated salvage and subrogation recoveries.

We evaluate our reserves quarterly, through an in-depth reserve review process, and adjustments to recorded reserves are made accordingly. The primary input we use to evaluate reserve levels is the quarterly reserve review prepared by our internal actuaries, which provides comprehensive loss and loss expense projections. We base our reviews primarily on our own loss experience, organized by line of business. Where sufficient statistical credibility exists, we may further segment the loss experience by coverage within a line, or geographic area. Generally accepted actuarial methodologies are applied to these reserve groups to produce ultimate loss and loss expense projections.

Typically, we organize our experience by accident year and age, which lends itself to the application of various loss development methods. These methods rely on historical claims reporting and payment patterns to project ultimate loss or expense for open accident years. We also consider the initial expectation of ultimate losses, particularly for longer-tailed lines of business and the current accident year. For the current accident year, our detailed actuarial planning process develops the expectation. The initial estimate is adjusted over time as actual experience emerges.

These methods require numerous assumptions, like the selection of loss and loss expense development factors and the weight applied to each individual projection method. Accordingly, no single method can be interpreted as definitive. Instead, ultimate loss and loss expenses are selected based on the various methods, considering the strengths and weaknesses of each applied to the specific line of business and accident year.

Certain liabilities do not lend themselves to the application of loss development methods, such as property catastrophes (low frequency/high severity, unique events), latent claims (where losses are incurred over an extended period of time), and unallocated loss expenses (loss expenses that cannot be attributed to a specific claim). We use alternate estimation techniques for these liabilities, some of which are primarily exposure-based methods. These methods include individual claims reviews, calendar year counts and averages, aggregate benchmark measures, such as paid and incurred “survival ratios,” and others. These approaches often require additional assumptions and a greater amount of professional judgment.

The reserve review results in a set of ultimate loss and loss expense estimates by line of business, including current and prior accident years. To provide additional insight, the selected ultimate losses are separated into their components of claim frequency and severity, along with their associated trend. While these ultimate loss and loss expense estimates serve as the primary basis for determining the recorded IBNR reserves, other internal and external factors are considered in our overall reserve review. Internal factors include (i) changes to our underwriting and claims practices, (ii) supplemental data on claims reporting and settlement trends, (iii) exposure estimates for reported claims, (iv) potential large or complex claims, and (v) additional trends observed by claims personnel or defense counsel. External factors considered include (i) legislative and regulatory enactments, (ii) judicial trends and decisions, (iii) social trends, including the impacts of social inflation, and (iv) trends in general economic conditions, including the effects of inflation on medical costs, raw materials, and labor.

The combination of IBNR estimates and case reserve estimates on individual claims results in our total reserve for loss and loss expense. These reserves are expected to be sufficient for settling loss and loss expense obligations under our policies on unpaid claims, including changes in the (i) volume of business written, (ii) claims frequency and severity, (iii) mix of business, (iv) claims processing, and (v) other items that management expects to affect our ultimate settlement of loss and loss expense. However, our loss and loss expense reserves are estimates of future events for which the outcomes are not yet known. As with all estimates, they carry inherent uncertainty, which may be driven by internal factors, such as changes to our claims or underwriting operations, or external factors, like legislative, judicial, economic, or social trends. Actual outcomes are further impacted by inherent randomness, such as the actual number of accidents/incidents or the occurrence or non-occurrence of a single large event. Because of these uncertainties, actual outcomes may differ materially from the reserves established. While this risk cannot be eliminated, we review our reserves quarterly based on the information then available, and make adjustments to our ultimate loss and loss expense estimates accordingly. These changes in our ultimate loss and loss expense estimates are reflected in the Consolidated Statements of Income for the period in which such estimates are changed. Changes in the liability estimate could be material to the results of operations in future periods.

Loss reserves are estimates, so we consider a range of possible loss and loss expense reserve estimates. This range is determined at the beginning of each year, using prior year-end data. It reflects the fact that no single precise method for estimating the required reserves exists due to the many factors that may influence the amounts ultimately paid. We do not discount to present value that portion of our loss and loss expense reserves expected to be paid in future periods. Our loss and loss expense reserves implicitly include anticipated salvage and subrogation recoveries.

Claims are counted by occurrence and by line of business and policy. For example, if a single occurrence (like an automobile accident) leads to a claim under an automobile and an associated umbrella policy, each claim is counted separately. Conversely, multiple claimants under the same occurrence/line/policy would constitute only one claim. Claim counts are on a reported basis and a claim is considered reported when a reserve is established or a loss payment is made. Claims closed without payment are included in the count if an associated case reserve was established at some point in the claim's life cycle.

(l)Revenue Recognition

Premiums written are recognized as revenue over the period that coverage is provided using the semi-monthly pro-rata method. Unearned premiums and prepaid reinsurance premiums represent that portion of premiums written that are applicable to the unexpired terms of policies in force.

The Insurance Subsidiaries' net premiums written (“NPW”) include direct insurance policy writings, plus reinsurance assumed, less reinsurance ceded. Insureds' records within our workers compensation and general liability lines of business are subject to periodic audit for purposes of verifying premium amounts. This premium is referred to as audit premium and is billed or returned on policies subsequent to expiration based on exposure levels (i.e. payroll or sales). We estimate this premium when it is reasonably possible to do so based on historical trends adjusted for the uncertainty of future economic conditions. If we determine it is not reasonably possible to estimate this premium, we do not do so.

(m)Dividends to Policyholders

We establish reserves for dividends to policyholders on certain policies, most significantly workers compensation policies. These dividends are based on the policyholders' loss experience. Dividend reserves are established based on past experience, adjusted for the effects of current developments and anticipated trends. The expense for these dividends is recognized over a period that begins at policy inception and ends with the payment of the dividend. We report these dividends within "Other insurance expenses" on the Consolidated Statement of Income. We do not issue policies that entitle the policyholder to participate in the statutory earnings or surplus of our Insurance Subsidiaries.

(n)Federal Income Tax

We use the asset and liability method of accounting for income taxes. Current federal income taxes are recognized for the estimated taxes payable or refundable on tax returns for the current year. Deferred federal income taxes arise from the recognition of temporary differences between financial statement carrying amounts and the tax basis of assets and liabilities. We consider all evidence, both positive and negative, with respect to our federal net operating and capital loss carryback availability, expected levels of pre-tax financial statement income, federal taxable income, liquidity, and prudent and reasonable tax planning strategies when evaluating whether the temporary differences will be realized. In projecting future taxable income, we begin with budgeted pre-tax income adjusted for estimated taxable and non-taxable items. The assumptions about future taxable income require significant judgment and are consistent with the plans and estimates we use to manage our businesses. A valuation allowance is established when it is more likely than not that some portion of the deferred tax asset will not be realized. The evaluation of a valuation allowance considers the character of the taxable income, ordinary income versus capital income. A liability for uncertain tax positions is recorded when it is more likely than not that a tax position will not be sustained upon examination by taxing authorities. The effect of a change in tax rates is recognized in the period of enactment. If we were to be levied interest and penalties by the Internal Revenue Service, these amounts would be recognized as a component of “Total federal income tax expense” on the Consolidated Statement of Income.

(o)Leases

We have various operating leases for office space, equipment, and fleet vehicles. In addition, we have various finance leases for computer hardware. We determine if an arrangement is a lease on the commencement date of the contract. Lease assets represent our right to use an underlying asset for the lease term, and lease liabilities represent our obligation to make lease payments arising from the lease. The lease asset and liability are measured by the present value of the future minimum lease payments over the lease term. Our fleet vehicle leases include a residual value guarantee; however, the residual value guarantee is not probable of being owed. Therefore, there is no impact to the lease liability or lease asset. To measure the present value, we use the discount rate in the contract. If the discount rate is not readily determinable, our incremental borrowing rate is used. The lease asset is then adjusted to exclude lease incentives. We recognize variable lease payments in the periods in which the obligations for those payments are incurred. In calculating a lease liability, we include options to extend or terminate the lease if it is reasonably certain that we will exercise such option. Lease expense is calculated using the straight-line method. In addition, we have adopted accounting policy elections to: (i) aggregate lease and non-lease components into a single lease component; and (ii) expense short-term leases on a straight-line basis over the lease term.

(p)Pension

Our pension obligations and related costs are calculated using actuarial methods, within the framework of GAAP. Our pension benefit obligation is determined as the actuarial present value of the vested benefits to which employees are currently entitled, based on the average life expectancy of the employees. Our funding policy provides that payments to our pension trust shall be equal to the minimum funding requirements of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 ("ERISA"), plus additional amounts that may be approved from time to time.

Two key assumptions, the benefit obligation discount rate and the expected return on plan assets, are important elements of expense and/or liability measurement. We evaluate these key assumptions annually unless facts indicate that a more frequent review is required. The discount rate enables us to state expected future cash flows at their present value on the measurement date. The purpose of the discount rate is to determine the interest rates inherent in the price at which pension benefits could be effectively settled. Our discount rate selection is based on high-quality, long-term corporate bonds. To determine the expected long-term rate of return on the plan assets, we consider the current and expected asset allocation, as well as historical and expected returns on each plan asset class. Other assumptions involve demographic factors such as retirement age and mortality. A portion of our plan assets is allocated to a liability hedging strategy through which we have an expectation that our plan assets will move in tandem with a portion of the plan liabilities, helping to mitigate funding ratio volatility.

Note 3. Adoption of Accounting Pronouncements

In March 2020, the Financial Accounting Standards Board ("FASB") issued Accounting Standards Update ("ASU") 2020-04, Reference Rate Reform (Topic 848) —Facilitation of the Effects of Reference Rate Reform on Financial Reporting (“ASU 2020-04”). ASU 2020-04 provides optional expedients and exceptions to the GAAP guidance on contract modifications and hedge accounting to ease the financial reporting burdens related to the market transition away from the London Interbank Offered Rate ("LIBOR") and other interbank offered rates to alternative reference rates. Companies can elect to adopt ASU 2020-04 as of the beginning of the interim period that includes March 2020, or any date thereafter through December 31, 2024, as permitted by ASU 2022-06, Reference Rate Reform (Topic 848) — Deferral of the Sunset Date of Topic 848 issued in December 2022. We adopted this guidance in the first quarter of 2023. We are not required to measure the effect of adoption on our financial position, cash flows, or net income because the guidance provides relief from accounting for the effects of the change to a replacement rate.

Pronouncements to be effective in the future

In June 2022, the FASB issued ASU 2022-03, Fair Value Measurement of Equity Securities Subject to Contractual Sale Restrictions (“ASU 2022-03”). ASU 2022-03 clarifies that a contractual sales restriction on an equity security is not considered when determining the security's fair value. This ASU was issued to eliminate diversity in practice by clarifying that contractual arrangements restricting an entity's ability to sell the security for a certain period of time is a characteristic of the reporting entity and should not be contemplated when determining the security's fair value. ASU 2022-03 requires new disclosures that provide investors with information about the restriction, including the nature and remaining duration of the restriction. The ASU is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2023, including interim periods within those annual periods. We adopted this guidance on January 1, 2024 and it will not have a material impact to our financial condition or results of operations.

In March 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-02, Investments — Equity Method and Joint Ventures (Topic 323): Accounting for Investments in Tax Credit Structures Using the Proportional Amortization Method ("ASU 2023-02"). This ASU allows companies to elect to account for qualifying tax equity investments, regardless of the tax credit program from which the income tax credits are received, using the proportional amortization method if certain conditions are met. Companies were previously permitted to apply the proportional amortization method only to qualifying tax equity investments in low-income-housing tax credit structures. ASU 2023-02 extends the application of the proportional amortization method to qualifying tax equity investments that generate tax credits through other programs. It also requires new disclosures that provide a better understanding of the nature of the tax equity investments and the effect the tax equity investments and related income tax credits and other income tax benefits have on a company's financial position and results of operations. The ASU is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2023, including interim periods within those fiscal years. We adopted this guidance on January 1, 2024 and it will not have a material impact to our financial condition or results of operations.

In November 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-07, Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures ("ASU 2023-07"). ASU 2023-07 amends disclosure requirements for segment reporting by modifying and adding disclosure requirements. The additional disclosure requirements include the following on both an interim and annual basis: (i) significant segment expenses that are regularly provided to the chief operating decision maker ("CODM"); (ii) amounts for "other segment items" by reportable segment and a description of its composition; and (iii) the title and position of the CODM and an explanation of how the CODM uses the reported measure(s) of segment profit or loss in assessing segment performance and deciding how to allocate resources. In addition, ASU 2023-07 requires all annual disclosures about a reportable segment’s profit or loss and assets currently required by Topic 280, Segment Reporting, to now be disclosed in interim periods. ASU 2023-07 is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2023, and interim periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024. Early adoption is permitted. As it requires disclosure only, ASU 2023-07 will not have an impact on our financial condition or results of operations.

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures (“ASU 2023-09”). ASU 2023-09 amends disclosure requirements to provide greater transparency on income taxes. The following additional disclosures are required annually: (i) specific required categories in the rate reconciliation, (ii) additional information for reconciling items that meet a quantitative threshold, (iii) the amount of income taxes paid disaggregated by jurisdiction, and (iv) income tax expense (or benefit) from continuing operations disaggregated by federal, state, and foreign. ASU 2023-09 is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2024. Amendments can be applied on a prospective basis; however, retrospective application is permitted. Early adoption is permitted. As it requires disclosure only, ASU 2023-09 will not have an impact on our financial condition or results of operations.

Note 4. Statements of Cash Flows

Supplemental cash flow information was as follows:

1 Examples of corporate actions include like-kind exchanges, non-cash acquisitions, and stock-splits.

2 This non-cash exchange represents our investment in a private fund that was initially classified as an alternative investment accounted for using the equity method. The fund was later reclassified as an equity security when the fund transitioned to an Investment Company Act of 1940 fund.

The following table provides a reconciliation of cash and restricted cash reported within the Consolidated Balance Sheets that equate to the amount reported in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows:

Amounts in restricted cash represent cash received from the National Flood Insurance Program ("NFIP") that can only be used to pay flood claims under the Write Your Own program.

Note 5. Investments

(a) Net unrealized gains and losses on investments included in "Other comprehensive income (loss)" ("OCI") in the Consolidated Statements of Stockholders' Equity by asset class were as follows for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022, and 2021:

(b) Information regarding our AFS securities as of December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022 were as follows:

The following tables provide a roll forward of the ACL on our AFS fixed income securities for the years indicated:

During 2023 or 2022, we had no write-offs or recoveries of our AFS fixed income securities.

As disclosed in Note 2. "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies," we do not evaluate accrued interest on our AFS securities for expected credit loss as we write-off these balances in a timely manner. Accrued interest on AFS securities was $64.6 million as of December 31, 2023, and $56.4 million as of December 31, 2022. We did not record any (i) write-offs of accrued interest during 2023, or (ii) material write-offs in 2022.

(c) Quantitative information about unrealized losses on our AFS portfolio follows:

We currently do not intend to sell any of the securities summarized in the tables above, nor do we believe we will be required to sell any of them. The decrease in gross unrealized losses at December 31, 2023, compared to December 31, 2022, was driven by a decrease in benchmark U.S. Treasury rates and a tightening of credit spreads, with the decrease in interest rates having the most significant impact. Considering these factors and our review of these securities under our credit loss policy as described in Note 2. “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies” of this Form 10-K, we have concluded that no ACL is required on these balances beyond the ACL recorded as of December 31, 2023. This conclusion reflects our current judgment about the financial position and future prospects of the entities that issued the investment security and underlying collateral.

(d) AFS and HTM fixed income securities at December 31, 2023, by contractual maturity are shown below. The maturities of RMBS, CMBS, CLO and other ABS securities were calculated using each security's estimated average life. Expected maturities may differ from contractual maturities because issuers may have the right to call or prepay obligations with or without call or prepayment penalties.

(e) The following table summarizes our alternative investment portfolio by strategy:

We are contractually committed to make additional investments up to the remaining commitments stated above. We did not provide any non-contractual financial support during 2023 or 2022.

The following is a description of our alternative investment strategies:

Our private equity strategy includes the following:

•Private Equity: This strategy makes private equity investments, primarily in established large and middle market companies across diverse industries globally, with an emphasis on North America.

•Venture Capital: In general, these investments are made principally by investing in equity securities of startup companies and small-to-medium sized privately-held corporations with strong long-term growth potential. This strategy makes private equity investments in seed stage, early stage, late stage, and growth equity partnerships.

Our private credit strategy includes the following:

•Direct Lending: This strategy provides privately negotiated loans to U.S. middle market companies. Typically, these are floating rate, senior secured loans diversified across industries. Loans are made to companies that may or may not have private equity sponsors to finance LBOs, recapitalizations, and acquisitions.

•Mezzanine Financing: This strategy provides privately-negotiated fixed income securities, generally with an equity component, to LBO firms and private and publicly-traded large, mid, and small-cap companies to finance LBOs, recapitalizations, and acquisitions.

•Opportunistic and Distressed Debt: This strategy makes investments in debt and equity securities of companies that are experiencing financial distress, operational issues, or dislocated pricing of publicly-traded securities. Investments include buying indebtedness of bankrupt or financially-troubled companies, small balance loan portfolios, special situations and capital structure arbitrage trades, commercial real estate mortgages, and similar non-U.S. securities and debt obligations.

Our real assets strategy includes the following:

•Infrastructure: This strategy invests in the equity or debt of cash flow generating assets, diversified across a variety of industries, including transportation, energy infrastructure, renewable power, such as wind and solar, social infrastructure, power generation, water, telecom, and other regulated entities principally located in North America and Western Europe.

•Real Estate: This strategy invests in real estate in North America, Europe, and Asia via direct property ownership, joint ventures, mortgages, and investments in equity and debt instruments.

Our alternative investment strategies may employ leverage and may use hedging to reduce foreign exchange or interest rate volatility. At this time, our alternative investment strategies do not include hedge funds. We typically cannot redeem our investments with the general partners of these investments; however, occasionally these partnership positions can be sold on the secondary market. Once liquidation is triggered by clauses within the limited partnership agreements or at the funds’ stated end date, we receive our final allocation of capital and any earned appreciation of the underlying investments, assuming we have not divested ourselves of our partnership interests prior to that time. We currently receive distributions from these alternative investments through the realization of the underlying investments of, or income generated by, the limited partnerships.

The following tables show gross summarized financial information for our alternative investments portfolio, including the portion we do not own. As the majority of these investments report results to us on a one quarter lag, the summarized financial statement information is as of, and for the 12-month period ended, September 30:

(f) We did not have exposure to any credit concentration risk of a single issuer greater than 10% of our stockholders' equity, other than to certain U.S. government agencies, as of December 31, 2023, or December 31, 2022.

(g) We have pledged certain AFS fixed income securities as collateral related to our borrowing relationships with the Federal Home Loan Bank of Indianapolis ("FHLBI") and the Federal Home Loan Bank of New York ("FHLBNY"). In addition, we had certain securities on deposit with various state and regulatory agencies at December 31, 2023 to comply with insurance laws. We retain all rights regarding all securities pledged as collateral.

The following table summarizes the market value of these securities at December 31, 2023:

(h) The components of pre-tax net investment income earned were as follows:

(i) The following table summarizes net realized and unrealized investment gains and losses for the periods indicated:

The decrease in net realized and unrealized investment losses in 2023 compared to 2022 was primarily driven by (i) improved valuations in the public equity markets, and (ii) an improvement in expected credit losses in 2023 reflecting a decrease in benchmark U.S. Treasury rates and, to a lesser extent, a tightening of credit spreads.

The increase in net realized and unrealized investment losses in 2022 compared to 2021 was primarily driven by (i) a decrease in valuations reflecting the public equities market in 2022, (ii) active trading of our fixed income securities in an effort to opportunistically increase yield given the rising interest rate environment in 2022, and (iii) higher credit loss expense on our AFS fixed income securities portfolio.

Net unrealized gains and losses recognized in income on equity securities, as reflected in the table above, included the following:

Proceeds from the sales of AFS fixed income securities were $1,221.9 million, $1,211.7 million, and $502.9 million in 2023, 2022, and 2021, respectively. Proceeds from the sales of equity securities were $53.3 million, $186.1 million, and $99.2 million in 2023, 2022, and 2021, respectively.

Note 6. Comprehensive Income

(a) The components of comprehensive income, both gross and net of tax, for 2023, 2022, and 2021 are as follows:

(b) The balances of, and changes in, each component of AOCI (net of taxes) as of December 31, 2023, and 2022, were as follows:

1 Represents change in unrealized gains (losses) on securities with credit loss recognized in earnings.

The reclassifications out of AOCI were as follows:

Note 7. Fair Value Measurements

The financial assets in our investment portfolio are primarily measured at fair value as disclosed on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The following table presents the carrying amounts and estimated fair values of our financial liabilities as of December 31, 2023, and 2022:

For discussion regarding the fair value techniques of our financial instruments, refer to Note 2. "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies" of this Form 10-K.

The following tables provide quantitative disclosures of our financial assets that were measured and recorded at fair value at December 31, 2023 and 2022:

1 Investments amounting to $163.9 million at December 31, 2023 and $103.6 million at December 31, 2022, were measured at fair value using the net asset value per share (or its practical expedient) and have not been classified in the fair value hierarchy. These investments are not redeemable and the timing of liquidations of the underlying assets is unknown at each reporting period. The fair value amounts presented in this table are intended to permit reconciliation of the fair value hierarchy to total assets measured at fair value.

The following tables provide a summary of Level 3 changes for the years indicated:

The following tables present quantitative information about the significant unobservable inputs used in the fair value measurements of Level 3 assets at December 31, 2023, and 2022:

1 Other is comprised of broker quotes or other third-party pricing for which there is a lack of transparency into the inputs used to develop the valuations. The quantitative details of these unobservable inputs is neither provided to us, nor reasonably available to us, and therefore are not included in the tables above.

For the securities in the tables above valued using a DCF analysis, we apply an illiquidity spread in our determination of fair value. An increase in this assumption would result in a lower fair value measurement.

The following tables provide quantitative information regarding our financial assets and liabilities that were not measured at fair value, but were disclosed as such at December 31, 2023, and 2022:

Note 8. Allowance for Credit Losses on Premiums Receivable

The following table provides a roll forward of the ACL on our premiums receivable balance for 2023 and 2022:

For a discussion of the methodology used to evaluate our estimate of expected credit losses on premiums receivable, refer to Note 2. "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies."

Note 9. Reinsurance

Our Financial Statements reflect the effects of assumed and ceded reinsurance transactions. Assumed reinsurance refers to the acceptance of certain insurance risks that other insurance entities have underwritten. Ceded reinsurance involves transferring certain insurance risks (along with the related written and earned premiums) that we have underwritten to other insurance companies that agree to share these risks. The primary purpose of ceded reinsurance is to protect the Insurance Subsidiaries from potential losses in excess of the amount that we are willing to accept. Our major treaties covering property, property catastrophe, and casualty business are excess of loss contracts. We also entered into a catastrophe bond transaction to protect against certain named loss events, and use an intercompany quota share (proportional) pooling arrangement and other minor reinsurance treaties.

Effective December 8, 2023, we secured property catastrophe protection through a per occurrence excess of loss indemnity reinsurance agreement with High Point Re Ltd. ("High Point Re"), an independent Bermuda special purpose insurer. The reinsurance agreement meets the requirements to be accounted for as reinsurance in accordance with the guidance for reinsurance contracts. In connection with the reinsurance agreement, High Point Re issued Series 2023-1, Class A Principal-at-Risk Variable Rates Notes (“catastrophe bonds”) to unrelated investors totaling $325 million, consistent with the amount of coverage provided under the reinsurance agreement. Under the terms of the reinsurance agreement, we pay annual reinsurance premiums to High Point Re for the reinsurance coverage, which are included in our ceded premiums. The principal amount of the catastrophe bonds will be reduced by any amounts paid to us under the reinsurance agreement.

As a Standard Commercial Lines and E&S Lines writer, we are subject to the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act ("TRIPRA"), which was extended by Congress to December 31, 2027. TRIPRA requires private insurers and the U. S. government to share the risk of loss on future acts of terrorism certified by the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury. Under TRIPRA, each participating insurer is responsible for paying a deductible of specified losses before federal assistance is available. This deductible is based on a percentage of the prior year’s applicable Standard Commercial Lines and E&S Lines premiums. In 2024, our deductible, before tax, is approximately $543 million. For losses above the deductible, the federal government will pay 80% of losses to an industry limit of $100 billion, and the insurer retains 20%.

The Insurance Subsidiaries remain liable to policyholders to the extent that any reinsurer becomes unable to meet their contractual obligations. In addition to this direct counterparty credit risk, we have indirect counterparty credit risk as our reinsurers often enter into their own reinsurance programs, or retrocessions, as part of managing their exposure to large losses and improving their financial strength ratings. The credit quality of our reinsurers is also impacted by other factors, such as their reserve adequacy, investment portfolio, regulatory capital position, catastrophe aggregations, and risk management expertise. We evaluate and monitor the financial condition of our reinsurers under voluntary reinsurance arrangements to minimize our exposure to significant losses from reinsurer insolvencies.

The following tables provide (i) a disaggregation of our reinsurance recoverable balance by financial strength rating, and (ii) an aging analysis of our past due reinsurance recoverable balances as of December 31, 2023, and 2022:

The $100.3 million decrease in "Federal and state pools" as of December 31, 2023, compared to December 31, 2022, was primarily due to a decrease in the NFIP reserves recorded as of December 31, 2022, for flood losses in Florida and surrounding states as a result of Hurricane Ian, which are 100% ceded to the NFIP and continue to be paid as the associated claims are settled.

The following table provides a roll forward of the allowance for credit losses on our reinsurance recoverable balance for the indicated periods:

For a discussion of the methodology used to evaluate our estimate of expected credit losses on our reinsurance recoverable balance, refer to Note 2. "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies."

The following table represents our total reinsurance balances segregated by reinsurer to illustrate our concentration of risk throughout our reinsurance portfolio:

1 Considered to have minimal risk of default.

2 Includes letters of credit, trust funds, and funds held against reinsurance recoverables.

Under our reinsurance arrangements, which are prospective in nature, reinsurance premiums ceded are recorded as prepaid reinsurance and amortized over the remaining contract period in proportion to the reinsurance protection provided, or recorded periodically, as per the terms of the contract, in a direct relationship to the gross premium recording. Reinsurance recoveries are recognized as gross losses as incurred.

The following table lists direct, assumed, and ceded reinsurance amounts for premiums written, premiums earned, and loss and loss expense incurred for the indicated periods:

Ceded premiums written, ceded premiums earned, and ceded loss and loss expense incurred related to our participation in the NFIP, to which we cede 100% of our NFIP flood premiums, losses, and loss expenses, were as follows:

Note 10. Reserve for Loss and Loss Expense

(a) The table below provides a roll forward of the reserve for loss and loss expense for beginning and ending reserve balances:

Our net loss and loss expense reserves increased by $331.0 million in 2023, $385.0 million in 2022, and $296.2 million in 2021. The loss and loss expense reserves are net of anticipated recoveries for salvage and subrogation claims, which amounted to $116.0 million for 2023, $91.3 million for 2022, and $87.0 million for 2021.

The increase in net loss and loss expense reserves in 2023 was primarily driven by increases in exposure due to premium growth and unfavorable prior year loss reserve development. In 2023, we experienced overall net unfavorable prior year loss reserve development of $10.0 million, compared to net favorable development of $78.9 million in 2022 and $82.9 million in 2021.

The following table summarizes the prior year reserve development by line of business:

The Insurance Subsidiaries had $10.0 million of unfavorable prior year reserve development during 2023, which included $6.5 million of net favorable casualty reserve development and $16.5 million of unfavorable property reserve development. The net favorable casualty reserve development was driven by the workers compensation line of business, which was largely offset by increases in the general liability and personal auto lines of business. Workers compensation benefited from continued favorable medical trends in accident years 2021 and prior. General liability development was impacted by increased loss severities in accident years 2015 through 2020. Personal auto development was primarily driven by increased loss severities in accident year 2022.

The Insurance Subsidiaries had $78.9 million of favorable prior year reserve development during 2022, which included $86.0 million of net favorable casualty reserve development and $7.1 million of unfavorable property reserve development. The net favorable casualty reserve development was largely driven by the workers compensation line of business, which was impacted by continued favorable medical trends in accident years 2020 and prior, and favorable inception-to-date claim frequencies in accident year 2020. Partially offsetting this net favorable reserve development was $15.0 million of unfavorable casualty reserve development in the commercial auto line of business ($22.5 million net of property reserve development), primarily driven by increased loss severities in accident year 2021.

The Insurance Subsidiaries had $82.9 million of favorable prior year reserve development during 2021, which included $81.0 million of net favorable casualty reserve development and $1.9 million of favorable property reserve development. The net favorable casualty reserve development was largely driven by the workers compensation and general liability lines of business. Workers compensation was impacted by continued favorable medical trends in accident years 2019 and prior, and general liability development was attributable to lower loss severities in accident years 2018 and prior. In addition, our E&S casualty lines experienced favorable reserve development of $7.0 million in 2021. Partially offsetting this net favorable reserve development was $15.0 million of unfavorable casualty reserve development in the commercial auto line of business ($13.3 million net of property reserve development), driven by unfavorable reserve development on loss severities in accident years 2016 through 2019.

(b) We have exposure to abuse or molestation claims within our general liability line of business, primarily through insurance policies that we issue to schools, religious institutions, day-care facilities, and other social services. We also have exposure to abuse or molestation claims from state laws that extend the statute of limitations or permit windows to be opened for abuse or molestation claims and lawsuits that were previously barred by statutes of limitations. The emergence of these claims is highly unpredictable and may be reported over an extended period of time. In addition to legislative changes that increase our exposure, there are significant uncertainties in estimating our exposure to abuse or molestation claims (for both case and IBNR reserves) resulting from (i) lack of relevant historical data, (ii) the delayed and inconsistent reporting patterns associated with these claims, (iii) the obligation of an insurer to defend a claim, (iv) the extent to which a party can prove the existence of coverage, and (v) uncertainty as to the number and identity of claimants. It is possible, as a result, that we may receive claims decades after the allegations occurred from coverages provided by us or our predecessor companies, that will require complex claims coverage determinations, potential litigation, and the need to collect from reinsurers under older reinsurance agreements.

(c) Reserves established for liability insurance include exposure to asbestos and environmental claims. These claims have arisen primarily from insured exposures in municipal government, small non-manufacturing commercial risk, and homeowners policies. The emergence of these claims is highly unpredictable and may be reported over an extended period of time. There are significant uncertainties in estimating our exposure to asbestos and environmental claims (for both case and IBNR reserves) resulting from (i) lack of relevant historical data, (ii) the delayed and inconsistent reporting patterns associated with these claims, and (iii) uncertainty as to the number and identity of claimants and complex legal and coverage issues. Legal issues that arise in asbestos and environmental cases include federal or state venue, choice of law, causation, admissibility of evidence, allocation of damages and contribution among joint defendants, successor and predecessor liability, and whether direct action against insurers can be maintained. Coverage issues that arise in asbestos and environmental cases include the interpretation and application of policy exclusions, the determination and calculation of policy limits, the determination of the ultimate amount of a loss, the extent to which a loss is covered by a policy, if at all, the obligation of an insurer to defend a claim, and the extent to which a party can prove the existence of coverage. Courts have reached different and sometimes inconsistent conclusions on these legal and coverage issues.

Traditional accident year loss development methods cannot be applied because past loss history is not necessarily indicative of future behavior. Instead, we review the experience by calendar year and rely on alternative metrics, such as paid and incurred survival ratios. As a result, reserves for asbestos and environmental require a high degree of judgment.

The following table details our loss and loss expense reserves for various asbestos and environmental claims showing gross and net of reinsurance:

Historically, our asbestos and environmental claims have been significantly lower in volume than many other Standard

Commercial Lines carriers as, prior to the introduction of the absolute pollution exclusion endorsement in the mid-1980s, we primarily wrote Standard Personal Lines, and therefore, our exposure to asbestos and environmental claims has been limited.

The following table provides a roll forward of asbestos and environmental incurred loss and loss expense and related reserves thereon showing gross and net of reinsurance:

(d) The following is information about incurred and paid claims development as of December 31, 2023, net of reinsurance, as well as the associated IBNR liabilities. During the experience period we implemented a series of underwriting and claims-related initiatives, including claims management changes. These initiatives focused on general underwriting and claims improvements and may impact some relationships in the tables below. As a result, several historical patterns have changed and may no longer be appropriate to use as the sole basis for projections.

The tables below also include information regarding reported claims. Claims are counted at the occurrence, line of business, and policy level. For example, if a single occurrence (e.g. an automobile accident) leads to a claim under an automobile and an associated umbrella policy, they are each counted separately. Conversely, multiple claimants under the same occurrence/line/policy would contribute only a single count. A claim is considered reported when a reserve is established or a payment is made. Therefore, claims closed without payment are included in the count as long as there was an associated case reserve at some point in its life cycle. The cumulative number of reported claims for each accident year in the tables below were updated with information available as of December 31, 2023. Therefore, the claim counts presented for the more recent accident years may not be representative of the ultimate claim counts, as they are for the more mature accident years presented.

(e) The reconciliation of the net incurred and paid claims development tables to the liability for loss and loss expenses in the Consolidated Balance Sheet is as follows:

(f) The table below reflects the historical average annual percentage payout of incurred claims by age. For example, the general liability line of business averages payout of 6.2% of its ultimate losses in the first year,11.9% in the second year, and so forth. The following is supplementary information about average historical claims duration as of December 31, 2023:

Note 11. Indebtedness

The table below provides a summary of our outstanding debt at December 31, 2023, and 2022:

On November 7, 2022, the Parent entered into a Credit Agreement with the lenders named therein (the “Lenders”) and Wells Fargo Bank, National Association, as Administrative Agent (the “Line of Credit”). Under the Line of Credit, the Lenders have agreed to provide the Parent with a $50 million revolving credit facility that can be increased to $125 million with the Lenders' consent. No borrowings were made under the Line of Credit in 2023 or 2022. The Line of Credit will mature on November 7, 2025, and has a variable interest rate based on the Parent’s debt ratings. This agreement replaced a prior $50 million revolving credit facility that the Parent terminated on November 7, 2022 in conjunction with entering into the Line of Credit. No borrowings were made under this credit agreement in 2022 prior to its termination.

Our Line of Credit contains representations, warranties, and covenants that are customary for credit facilities of this type, including, without limitation, financial covenants under which we are obligated to maintain a minimum consolidated net worth, a maximum ratio of consolidated debt to total capitalization, and covenants limiting our ability to: (i) merge or liquidate; (ii) incur debt or liens; (iii) dispose of assets; (iv) make investments and acquisitions; and (v) engage in transactions with affiliates.

The table below outlines information regarding certain covenants in the Line of Credit:

1 Calculated in accordance with the Line of Credit.

In addition to the above requirements, the Line of Credit contains a cross-default provision that provides that the Line of Credit will be in default if we fail to comply with any condition, covenant, or agreement (including payment of principal and interest when due on any debt with an aggregate principal amount of at least $30 million), which causes or permits the acceleration of principal. Additionally, the Line of Credit limits borrowings from the FHLBI and the FHLBNY to 10% of the respective member company's admitted assets for the previous year.

Short-term Debt Activity

(1) On April 6, 2023, SICA borrowed $20 million from the FHLBNY at an interest rate of 5.00% that was repaid on May 8, 2023. These funds were used for general corporate purposes.

Long-term Debt Activity

(1) In the first quarter of 2019, we issued $300 million of 5.375% Senior Notes due 2049 at a discount of $5.9 million which, when coupled with debt issuance costs of approximately $3.3 million, resulted in net proceeds from the offering of $290.8 million. The 5.375% Senior Notes pay interest on March 1 and September 1 of each year. The first payment was made on September 1, 2019. A portion of the proceeds from this debt issuance was used to fully redeem the $185 million aggregate principal amount of our 5.875% Senior Notes due 2043, with the remaining $106 million being used for general corporate purposes. The 5.875% Senior Notes had pre-tax debt retirement costs of $4.2 million, or $3.3 million after tax, which was recorded in Interest expense on the Consolidated Statements of Income in the first quarter of 2019. There are no financial debt covenants to which we are required to comply in regards to the 5.375% Senior Notes.

(2) In the first quarter of 2009, Selective Insurance Company of South Carolina ("SICSC") and Selective Insurance Company of the Southeast ("SICSE"), which are collectively referred to as the "Indiana Subsidiaries" as they are domiciled in Indiana, joined, and invested in, the FHLBI, which provides them with access to additional liquidity. The Indiana Subsidiaries’ aggregate investment in the FHLBI was $5.2 million at both December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022. Our investment provides us the ability to borrow approximately 20 times the total amount of the FHLBI common stock purchased with additional collateral, at comparatively low borrowing rates. The proceeds from the FHLBI borrowing on December 16, 2016 of $60 million were used to repay a $45 million borrowing from the FHLBI that was outstanding at the time, with the remaining $15 million used for general corporate purposes. All borrowings from the FHLBI require security. There are no financial debt covenants to which we are required to comply in regards to these borrowings. For information on investments that are pledged as collateral for these borrowings, see Note 5. "Investments" above.

(3) In November 2005, we issued $100 million of 6.70% Senior Notes due 2035. These notes were issued at a discount of $0.7 million resulting in an effective yield of 6.754%. Net proceeds of approximately $50 million were used to fund an irrevocable trust that subsequently funded certain payment obligations in respect of our outstanding debt. The remainder of the proceeds was used for general corporate purposes. The agreements covering these notes contain a standard default cross-acceleration provision that provides the 6.70% Senior Notes will enter a state of default upon the failure to pay principal when due or upon any event or condition that results in an acceleration of principal of any other debt instrument in excess of $10 million that we have outstanding concurrently with the 6.70% Senior Notes. There are no financial debt covenants to which we are required to comply in regards to these notes.

(4) In November 2004, we issued $50 million of 7.25% Senior Notes due 2034. These notes were issued at a discount of $0.1 million, resulting in an effective yield of 7.27%. We contributed $25 million of the bond proceeds to the Insurance Subsidiaries as capital. The remainder of the proceeds was used for general corporate purposes. The agreements covering these notes contain a standard default cross-acceleration provision that provides the 7.25% Senior Notes will enter a state of default upon the failure to pay principal when due or upon any event or condition that results in an acceleration of principal of any other debt instrument in excess of $10 million that we have outstanding concurrently with the 7.25% Senior Notes. There are no financial debt covenants to which we are required to comply in regards to these notes.

Note 12. Segment Information

We evaluate the results of ourfour reportable segments as follows:

•Our Standard Commercial Lines, Standard Personal Lines, and E&S Lines are evaluated on (i) before and after-tax underwriting results (net premiums earned, incurred loss and loss expense, policyholders dividends, policy acquisition costs, and other underwriting expenses), (ii) their return on equity ("ROE") contribution, and (iii) their combined ratios.

•Our Investments segment is primarily evaluated on after-tax net investment income and its ROE contribution. After-tax net realized and unrealized gains and losses are also included in our Investment segment results.

In computing each segment's results, we do not make adjustments for interest expense or corporate expenses. No segment has a separate investment portfolio or allocated assets.

Our combined insurance operations are subject to certain geographic concentrations, particularly in the Eastern region of the country. In 2023, approximately 35% of NPW were related to insurance policies written in New Jersey (16%), Pennsylvania (10%), and New York (9%). We also had a goodwill balance of $7.8 million at both December 31, 2023, and 2022, on our

Consolidated Balance Sheets that relates to our Standard Commercial Lines reporting unit.

The following summaries present revenues (net investment income and net realized and unrealized gains and losses on investments in the case of the Investments segment) and pre-tax income for the individual segments:

Note 13. Earnings per Share

The following table presents the calculations of earnings per common share ("EPS") on a basic and diluted basis:

Note 14. Federal Income Taxes

(a) A reconciliation of federal income tax on income at the corporate rate (21.0%) to the effective tax rate is as follows:

(b) The tax effects of the significant temporary differences that gave rise to deferred tax assets and liabilities were as follows:

After considering all evidence, both positive and negative, with respect to our federal tax loss carryback availability, expected levels of pre-tax financial statement income, federal taxable income, liquidity, and prudent and reasonable tax planning strategies, we believe it is more likely than not that the existing deductible temporary differences will reverse during periods in which we generate net federal taxable income or have adequate federal carryback availability. As a result, we had no valuation allowance recognized for federal deferred tax assets at December 31, 2023, or 2022. We did not have unrecognized tax expense or benefit as of December 31, 2023.

We have analyzed our tax positions in all open tax years, which as of December 31, 2023 were 2020 through 2023. We believe our tax positions will more likely than not be sustained upon examination, including related appeals or litigation. In the event we had a tax position that did not meet the more likely than not criteria, any tax, interest, and penalties incurred related to such a position would be reflected in "Total federal income tax expense" on our Consolidated Statements of Income.

Note 15. Retirement Plans

(a) Selective Insurance Retirement Savings Plan (“Retirement Savings Plan”) and Selective Insurance Company of America Deferred Compensation Plan ("Deferred Compensation Plan")

SICA offers a voluntary defined contribution 401(k) plan that is available to most of our employees and is a tax-qualified retirement plan subject to ERISA. In addition, SICA offers a Deferred Compensation Plan to a group of management or highly compensated employees as a method of recognizing and retaining such employees. Expenses recorded for these plans were $21.5 million in 2023, $19.8 million in 2022, and $19.2 million in 2021.

(b) Retirement Income Plan

SICA maintains a defined benefit pension plan, the Retirement Income Plan for Selective Insurance Company of America (the "Pension Plan"). This qualified, noncontributory plan is closed to new entrants, and existing participants ceased accruing benefits after March 31, 2016.

The following tables provide details on the Pension Plan for 2023 and 2022:

When determining the most appropriate discount rate to be used in the valuation at December 31, 2023, we consider, among other factors, our expected payout patterns of the Pension Plan's obligations as well as our investment strategy. We ultimately select the rate that we believe best represents our estimate of the inherent interest rate at which our pension benefits can be effectively settled. The approach we utilize discounts the individual expected cash flows using the applicable spot rates derived from the yield curve over the projected cash flow period. Our discount rate decreased 19 basis points, to 5.02% as of December 31, 2023, from 5.21% as of December 31, 2022, which drove the increase in the benefit obligation for the period.

1 The components of net periodic pension cost (benefit) are included within "Loss and loss expense incurred" and "Other insurance expenses" on the Consolidated Statements of Income.

Pension Plan Assets

Assets of the Pension Plan are invested to adequately support the liability associated with the Pension Plan's defined benefit obligation. Our return objective is to exceed the returns of the plan's policy benchmark, which is the return the plan would have earned if the assets were invested according to the target asset class weightings and earned index returns shown below. In 2024, we will continue to phase in adjustments to the asset allocation to steadily increase the asset-liability interest rate hedge ratio, provided certain improved funding targets are achieved. Over time, the target and actual asset allocations may change based on the funded status of the Pension Plan and market return expectations.

The Pension Plan’s target ranges, as well as the actual weighted average asset allocation by strategy, at December 31 were as follows:

1 Includes limited partnerships.

The use of derivative instruments is permitted under certain circumstances for the Pension Plan portfolio, but may not be used for unrelated speculative purposes or to create exposures that are not permitted in the Pension Plan's investment guidelines. We currently invest in a U.S. Treasury overlay derivative strategy, within the funds in our liability hedging assets, to manage the interest rate duration mismatch between the assets and liabilities of the Pension Plan to help insulate the funded status of the plan. Considering the impact of this derivative overlay, the liability hedging assets provide for an approximate 90% hedge against the projected benefit obligation.

The Pension Plan had no investments in the Parent’s common stock as of December 31, 2023, or 2022. For information regarding investments in funds of our related parties, refer to Note 18. "Related Party Transactions" below.

The techniques used to determine the fair value of the Pension Plan's invested assets that appear on the following page are as follows:

•The investments in the equities and liability hedging funds include collective investment funds and fund of funds that utilize a market approach wherein the published prices in the active market for identical assets are used. These investments are traded at their net asset value per share. These investments are classified as Level 1 in the fair value hierarchy.

•The investments in private limited partnerships are valued utilizing net asset value as a practical expedient for fair value. These investments are not classified in the fair value hierarchy.

•Short-term investments are recorded at fair value. Given that these investments are listed on active exchanges, coupled with their liquid nature, these investments are classified as Level 1 in the fair value hierarchy.

•The deposit administration contract is recorded at cost, which approximates fair value. Given the liquid nature of the underlying investments in overnight cash deposits and other short-term duration products, we have determined that a correlation exists between the deposit administration contract and other short-term investments, such as money market funds. As such, this investment is classified as Level 2 in the fair value hierarchy.

For discussion regarding the levels within the fair value hierarchy, see Note 2. "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies." In addition, refer to Note 5. "Investments" for discussion regarding the private equity, venture capital, and real asset limited partnership investment strategies as these investments are part of the Pension Plan's investment portfolio.

The following tables provide quantitative disclosures of the Pension Plan’s invested assets that are measured at fair value on a recurring basis:

1 Liquid diversifiers are investments that unbundle return drivers from hedge funds, providing investors access to liquid, diversifying returns.

2 These investments were measured at fair value using the net asset value per share (or its practical expedient) and have not been classified in the fair value hierarchy. The fair value amounts presented in this table are intended to permit reconciliation of the fair value hierarchy to total Pension Plan invested assets.

Contributions

We presently do not anticipate contributing to the Pension Plan in 2024, as we have no minimum required contribution amounts.

Benefit Payments

Note 16. Share-Based Payments

Active Plans

As of December 31, 2023, the following four plans were available for the issuance of share-based payment awards:

•The 2014 Omnibus Stock Plan, As Amended and Restated Effective as of May 2, 2018 (the "Stock Plan");

•The Cash Incentive Plan, As Amended and Restated as of May 1, 2014 (the "Cash Plan");

•The Employee Stock Purchase Plan, As Amended and Restated as of July 1, 2021 ("ESPP"); and

•The Amended and Restated Stock Purchase Plan for Independent Insurance Agencies (2010), Amended and Restated as of November 1, 2020 (the "Agent Plan").

The following table provides information regarding the approval of these plans:

The types of awards that can be issued under each of these plans are as follows:

Shares authorized and available for issuance as of December 31, 2023 were as follows:

Retired Plans

The following plans are closed for the issuance of new awards as of December 31, 2023, although awards outstanding continue in effect according to the terms of the applicable award agreements:

1 Awards outstanding under the 2005 Stock Plan represent shares deferred by our non-employee directors.

RSU Transactions

A summary of the RSU transactions under our share-based payment plans is as follows:

As of December 31, 2023, total unrecognized compensation expense related to unvested RSU awards granted under our Stock Plan was $10.6 million. That expense is expected to be recognized over a weighted-average period of 1.6 years. The total intrinsic value of RSUs vested was $23.3 million for 2023, $18.1 million for 2022, and $17.2 million for 2021. In connection with vested RSUs, the total value of the DEUs that vested was $0.9 million in 2023, $0.7 million in 2022, and $0.6 million in 2021.

CIU Transactions

The liability recorded in connection with our Cash Plan was $10.5 million as of December 31, 2023, and $11.1 million as of December 31, 2022. The remaining cost associated with the CIUs is expected to be recognized over a weighted average period of 0.8 years. The CIU payments made in connection with the CIU vestings were $3.0 million in 2023, $2.9 million in 2022, and $2.2 million in 2021.

ESPP and Agent Plan Transactions

A summary of ESPP and Agent Plan share issuances is as follows:

Fair Value Measurements

The grant date fair value of RSUs is based on the market price of our common stock on the grant date, adjusted for the present value of our expected dividend payments. The expense recognized for share-based awards is based on the number of shares or units expected to be issued at the end of the performance period and the grant date fair value.

The grant date fair value of each option award is estimated using the Black Scholes option valuation model ("Black Scholes"). The following are the significant assumptions used in applying Black Scholes: (i) the risk-free interest rate, which is the implied yield currently available on U.S. Treasury zero-coupon issues with an equal remaining term; (ii) the expected term, which is based on historical experience of similar awards; (iii) the dividend yield, which is determined by dividing the expected per share dividend during the coming year by the grant date stock price; and (iv) the expected volatility, which is based on the volatility of the Parent's stock price over a historical period comparable to the expected term. In applying Black Scholes, we use the weighted average assumptions illustrated in the following table:

The weighted-average fair value per share of options and stock, including RSUs granted under the Parent's stock plans, during 2023, 2022, and 2021 was as follows:

The fair value of the CIU liability is remeasured at each reporting period through the settlement date of the awards, which is three years from the date of grant, based on an amount expected to be paid. A Monte Carlo simulation is performed to approximate the projected fair value of the CIUs that, in accordance with the CIU agreements established under the Cash Plan, is adjusted to reflect our performance on specified indicators compared to targeted peer companies.

Expense Recognition

The following table provides share-based compensation expense in 2023, 2022, and 2021:

Note 17. Equity

Preferred Stock

We have 5,000,000 shares of preferred stock authorized, with no par value, of which (i)300,000 shares are designated Series A junior preferred stock, which have not been issued, and (ii)8,000 shares were issued as Series B in 2020 as discussed below.

On December 2, 2020, we issued 8.0 million depository shares, each representing a 1/1,000th interest in a share of our perpetual 4.60% Non-Cumulative Preferred Stock, Series B, without par value, with a liquidation preference of $25,000 per share (equivalent to $25.00 per depository share) (“Preferred Stock”), for net proceeds of $194.6 million. Dividends are recorded when declared and, if declared, are payable quarterly in arrears on the 15th day of March, June, September, and December. If a dividend is not declared and paid or made payable on all outstanding shares of the Preferred Stock for the latest completed dividend period, no dividends may be declared or paid on our common stock and we may not purchase, redeem, or otherwise acquire our outstanding common stock.

The Preferred Stock is redeemable at our option in whole or in part, from time to time, on or after December 15, 2025 at a redemption price equal to $25,000 per share of Preferred Stock (equivalent to $25.00 per depository share), plus unpaid dividends attributable to the then current dividend period. Prior to December 15, 2025, the Preferred Stock is redeemable at the Company’s option, in whole but not in part, within 90 days of the occurrence of (a) a rating agency event at a redemption price equal to $25,500 per share of Preferred Stock (equivalent to $25.50 per depository share), plus unpaid dividends attributable to the current dividend period in circumstances where a rating agency changes its criteria used to assign equity credit to securities like the Preferred Stock; or (b) a regulatory capital event at a redemption price equal to $25,000 per share of Preferred Stock (equivalent to $25.00 per depository share), plus unpaid dividends attributable to the current dividend period in circumstances where a capital regulator such as a state insurance regulator changes or proposes to change capital adequacy rules.

Share Repurchase Program

On December 2, 2020, we announced that our Board authorized a $100 million share repurchase program, with no set expiration or termination date. Our repurchase program does not obligate us to acquire any particular amount of our common stock. Management will determine the timing and amount of any share repurchases under the authorization at its discretion based on market conditions and other considerations. We had no common stock share repurchases in 2023. For the year ended December 31, 2022,165,159 shares were repurchased under the share repurchase program at a total cost of $12.4 million, including commissions. We had $84.2 million of remaining capacity under our share repurchase program as of both December 31, 2023, and 2022.

Note 18. Related Party Transactions

William M. Rue, a former Director of the Parent, is Chairman of, and owns more than 10% of the equity of Rue Holding Company, which owns 100% of Chas. E. Rue & Son, Inc., t/a Rue Insurance, a general independent retail insurance agency ("Rue Insurance"). Rue Insurance is an appointed distribution partner of the Insurance Subsidiaries on terms and conditions similar to those of our other distribution partners, which includes the right to participate in the Agent Plan. Mr. Rue’s son is President, and an employee, of Rue Insurance, and owns more than 10% of the equity of Rue Holding Company. Mr. Rue’s daughter is an employee of Rue Insurance and owns less than 10% of the equity of Rue Holding Company. Our relationship with Rue Insurance has existed since 1928. Mr. Rue retired from the Parent's Board in May 2023.

Rue Insurance placed insurance policies with the Insurance Subsidiaries for its customers and itself. Direct premiums written associated with these policies were $15.7 million in 2023, $14.3 million in 2022, and $12.8 million in 2021. In return, the Insurance Subsidiaries paid standard market commissions, including supplemental commissions, to Rue Insurance of $2.9 million in 2023, $2.7 million in 2022, and $2.0 million in 2021. Amounts due to Rue Insurance at December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022 were $0.7 million and $0.7 million, respectively. All contracts and transactions with Rue Insurance were consummated in the ordinary course of business on an arm's-length basis.

In 2005, we established a private foundation, now named The Selective Insurance Group Foundation (the "Foundation"), under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. The Board of the Foundation is comprised of some of the officers of the Parent and the Insurance Subsidiaries. We did not make any contributions to the Foundation in 2023. We contributed $0.3 million in 2022 and $1.3 million in 2021.

BlackRock, Inc., a leading publicly-traded investment management firm (“BlackRock”), has purchased our common shares in the ordinary course of its investment business and has previously filed Schedules 13G/A with the SEC. On January 23, 2024, BlackRock filed a Schedule 13G/A reporting beneficial ownership as of December 31, 2023, of 12.8% of our common stock. In connection with purchasing our common shares, BlackRock filed the necessary filings with insurance regulatory authorities. On the basis of those filings, BlackRock is deemed not to be a controlling person for the purposes of applicable insurance law.

We are required to disclose related party information for our transactions with BlackRock. BlackRock is highly regulated, serves its clients as a fiduciary, and has a diverse platform of active (alpha) and index (beta) investment strategies across asset classes that enables it to tailor investment outcomes and asset allocation solutions for clients. BlackRock also offers the BlackRock Solutions® investment and risk management technology platform, Aladdin®, risk analytics, advisory, and technology services and solutions to a broad base of institutional and wealth management investors. We incurred expenses related to BlackRock for services rendered of $2.1 million in 2023, $1.8 million in 2022, and $1.8 million in 2021. Amounts payable for such services were $0.6 million at December 31, 2023, $0.8 million at December 31, 2022, and $0.5 million at December 31, 2021.

As part of our overall investment diversification, we invest in various BlackRock funds from time to time. These funds accounted for less than 1% of our invested assets at December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022, and are predominately reflected in "Fixed income securities" on our Consolidated Balance Sheet. During 2023, with regard to BlackRock funds, we (i) purchased $7.9 million in securities, (ii) sold $2.8 million, (iii) recognized net realized and unrealized gains of $1.7 million, and (iv) recorded $2.5 million in income. During 2022, we (i) purchased $18.5 million in securities, (ii) sold $32.3 million, (iii) recognized net realized and unrealized losses of $6.9 million, and (iv) recorded $1.8 million in income. During 2021, we (i) purchased $16.5 million in securities, (ii) sold $32.5 million, (iii) recognized net realized and unrealized losses of $0.6 million, and (iv) recorded $0.9 million in income. There were no amounts payable on the settlement of these investment transactions at December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022.

Our Pension Plan's investment portfolio contained investments in BlackRock funds of $114.2 million at December 31, 2023 and $120.1 million at December 31, 2022. During 2023, with regard to BlackRock funds, the Pension Plan (i) purchased $19.9 million in securities, (ii) sold $35.1 million, and (iii) recorded net investment income of $9.3 million. During 2022, with regard to BlackRock funds, the Pension Plan (i) purchased $56.4 million in securities, (ii) sold $65.7 million, and (iii) recorded net investment losses of $80.5 million. During 2021, with regard to BlackRock funds, the Pension Plan (i) purchased $18.0 million in securities, (ii) sold $18.1 million, and (iii) recorded net investment income of $18.2 million. In addition, our Deferred Compensation Plan and Retirement Savings Plan may offer our employees the option to invest in various BlackRock funds. All contracts and transactions with BlackRock were consummated in the ordinary course of business on an arm's-length basis.

Vanguard, one of the world’s largest investment management companies, has purchased our common shares in the ordinary course of its investment business and has previously filed Schedules 13G/A with the SEC. Vanguard offers low-cost mutual funds and exchange-traded funds, as well as other investment related services. On February 10, 2023, Vanguard filed a Schedule 13G/A reporting beneficial ownership of 10.03% of our common stock as of January 31, 2023. In connection with purchasing our common shares, Vanguard filed the necessary filings with insurance regulatory authorities. On the basis of those filings, we do not expect Vanguard to be deemed a controlling person for the purposes of applicable insurance law.

As part of our overall investment diversification, we may invest in various Vanguard funds from time to time. These funds accounted for less than 1% of our invested assets at December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022, and are predominately reflected in "Equity securities" on our Consolidated Balance Sheet. During 2023, with regard to Vanguard funds, we (i) purchased $0.5 million in securities, (ii) sold $32.9 million, (iii) recognized net realized and unrealized gains of $0.1 million, and (iv) recorded $0.7 million in income. During 2022, we (i) purchased $3.5 million in securities, (ii) sold $125.2 million, (iii) recognized net realized and unrealized losses of $10.4 million, and (iv) recorded $4.7 million in income. During 2021, we (i) purchased $19.3 million in securities, (ii) sold $23.6 million, (iii) recognized net realized and unrealized gains of $17.7 million, and (iv) recorded $7.5 million in income. There were no amounts payable on the settlement of these investment transactions at December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022.

Our Deferred Compensation Plan offers our employees investment options based on the notional value of various Vanguard funds. Our Retirement Savings Plan offers our employees the option to invest in a Vanguard fund. All transactions with Vanguard are consummated in the ordinary course of business on an arm’s-length basis.

NOTE 19. Leases

We have various operating leases for office space, equipment, and fleet vehicles. In addition, we have various finance leases for computer hardware. Such lease agreements, which expire at various dates through 2032, are generally renewed or replaced by similar leases.

The components of lease expense for the years ended December 31, 2023, and 2022, were as follows:

The following table provides supplemental information regarding our operating and finance leases.