LINCOLN NATIONAL CORP

NOTES TO CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

(Unaudited)

1. Nature of Operations and Basis of Presentation

Nature of Operations

Lincoln National Corporation and its subsidiaries (“LNC” or the “Company,” which also may be referred to as “we,” “our” or “us”) operate multiple insurance businesses through four business segments: Annuities, Life Insurance, Group Protection and Retirement Plan Services. In addition, we include financial results for operations that are not directly related to our business segments in Other Operations. The collective group of businesses uses “Lincoln Financial” as its marketing identity. Through our business segments, we sell a wide range of wealth accumulation, wealth protection, group protection and retirement products and solutions. These products primarily include variable annuities, fixed annuities (including indexed), registered index-linked annuities (“RILA”), universal life insurance (“UL”), variable universal life insurance (“VUL”), linked-benefit UL and VUL, indexed universal life insurance (“IUL”), term life insurance, group life, disability and dental and employer-sponsored retirement plans and services. For more information on our segments and the products and solutions we provide, see Note 15.

Basis of Presentation

The accompanying unaudited consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with United States of America generally accepted accounting principles (“GAAP”) for interim financial information and with the instructions for the Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”) Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, including Article 10 of Regulation S-X. Accordingly, they do not include all of the information and notes required by GAAP for complete financial statements. The information contained in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements included in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2024 (“2024 Form 10-K”), should be read in connection with the reading of these interim unaudited consolidated financial statements.

Certain GAAP policies, which significantly affect the determination of financial condition, results of operations and cash flows, are summarized in our 2024 Form 10-K.

In the opinion of management, these statements include all normal recurring adjustments necessary for a fair presentation of the Company’s results. Interim results for the three months ended March 31, 2025, are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for the full year ending December 31, 2025. All material inter-company accounts and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation.

We present disaggregated disclosures in the Notes below for long-duration insurance balances, applying the level of aggregation by business segment as follows:

The variable annuities level of aggregation includes RILA products, which are indexed variable annuities. The fixed annuities level of aggregation represents deferred fixed annuities. We have excluded amounts reported in Other Operations from our disaggregated disclosures that are attributable to the indemnity reinsurance agreements with Protective Life Insurance Company (“Protective”) and Swiss Re Life & Health America, Inc (“Swiss Re”) as these contracts are fully reinsured, run-off institutional pension business in the form of group annuity and the results of certain disability income business.

2. New Accounting Standards

Adoption of New Accounting Standards

The following table provides a description of current period adoptions of new Accounting Standards Updates (“ASUs”).

Future Adoption of New Accounting Standards

The following table provides a description of future adoptions of new ASUs that may have an impact on the consolidated financial statements when adopted. ASUs not listed below were assessed and determined to be either not applicable or insignificant in presentation or amount.

3. Investments

Fixed Maturity AFS Securities

The amortized cost, gross unrealized gains and losses, allowance for credit losses and fair value of fixed maturity available-for-sale (“AFS”) securities (in millions) were as follows:

The amortized cost and fair value of fixed maturity AFS securities by contractual maturities (in millions) as of March 31, 2025, were as follows:

Actual maturities may differ from contractual maturities because issuers may have the right to call or pre-pay obligations.

The fair value and gross unrealized losses of fixed maturity AFS securities (dollars in millions) for which an allowance for credit losses has not been recorded, aggregated by investment category and length of time that individual securities have been in a continuous unrealized loss position, were as follows:

(1)As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, we recognized $12 million and $23 million of gross unrealized losses, respectively, in other comprehensive income (loss) (“OCI”) for fixed maturity AFS securities for which an allowance for credit losses has been recorded.

The fair value, gross unrealized losses (in millions) and number of fixed maturity AFS securities where the fair value had declined and remained below amortized cost by greater than 20% were as follows:

(1)We may reflect a security in more than one aging category based on various purchase dates.

Our gross unrealized losses on fixed maturity AFS securities decreased by $742 million for the three months ended March 31, 2025. As discussed further below, we do not believe the unrealized loss position as of March 31, 2025, required an impairment recognized in earnings as: (i) we did not intend to sell these fixed maturity AFS securities; (ii) it is not more likely than not that we will be required to sell the fixed maturity AFS securities before recovery of their amortized cost basis; and (iii) the difference in the fair value compared to the amortized cost was due to factors other than credit loss. Based upon this evaluation as of March 31, 2025, management believes we have the ability to generate adequate amounts of cash from our normal operations (e.g., insurance premiums, fee income and investment income) to meet cash requirements with a prudent margin of safety without requiring the sale of our impaired securities.

As of March 31, 2025, the unrealized losses associated with our corporate bond, U.S. government bond, state and municipal bond and foreign government bond securities were attributable primarily to rising interest rates and widening credit spreads since purchase. We performed a detailed analysis of the financial performance of the underlying issuers and determined that we expected to recover the entire amortized cost of each impaired security.

Credit ratings express opinions about the credit quality of a security. Securities rated investment grade (those rated BBB- or higher by S&P Global Ratings (“S&P”) or Baa3 or higher by Moody’s Investors Service (“Moody’s”)) are generally considered by the rating agencies and market participants to be low credit risk. As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024,96% of the fair value of our corporate bond portfolio was rated investment grade. As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, the portion of our corporate bond portfolio rated below investment grade had an amortized cost of $2.8 billion and $2.9 billion, respectively, and a fair value of $2.7 billion and $2.8 billion, respectively. Based upon the analysis discussed above, we believe that as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, we would have recovered the amortized cost of each corporate bond.

As of March 31, 2025, the unrealized losses associated with our mortgage-backed securities (“MBS”) and asset-backed securities (“ABS”) were attributable primarily to rising interest rates and widening credit spreads since purchase. We assessed for credit impairment using a cash flow model that incorporates key assumptions including default rates, severities and prepayment rates. We estimated losses for a security by forecasting the underlying loans in each transaction. The forecasted loan performance was used to project cash flows to the various tranches in the structure, as applicable. Our forecasted cash flows also considered, as applicable, independent industry analyst reports and forecasts and other independent market data. Based upon our assessment of the expected credit losses of the security given the performance of the underlying collateral compared to our subordination or other credit enhancement, we expected to recover the entire amortized cost of each impaired security.

As of March 31, 2025, the unrealized losses associated with our hybrid and redeemable preferred securities were attributable primarily to wider credit spreads caused by illiquidity in the market and subordination within the capital structure, as well as credit risk of underlying issuers. For our hybrid and redeemable preferred securities, we evaluated the financial performance of the underlying issuers based upon credit performance and investment ratings and determined that we expected to recover the entire amortized cost of each impaired security.

Credit Loss Impairment on Fixed Maturity AFS Securities

We regularly review our fixed maturity AFS securities for declines in fair value that we determine to be impairment-related, including those attributable to credit risk factors that may require an allowance for credit losses. Changes in the allowance for credit losses on fixed maturity AFS securities (in millions), aggregated by investment category, were as follows:

(1)Represents purchased credit-deteriorated (“PCD”) fixed maturity AFS securities.

(2)As of March 31, 2025 and 2024, accrued investment income on fixed maturity AFS securities totaled $911 million and $943 million, respectively, and was excluded from the estimate of credit losses.

Losses from debt instrument modifications were $5 million andzero for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

The following provides the current and past due composition of our mortgage loans on real estate (in millions):

(1)Represents the mark-to-market on certain mortgage loans on real estate that support our modified coinsurance agreements, where the investment results are passed directly to the reinsurers, and for which we have elected the fair value option. As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, the amortized cost and fair value of such mortgage loans on real estate that were in nonaccrual status was $30 million and $21 million, respectively. As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, there wereno such mortgage loans on real estate that were more than 90 days past due and still accruing interest. See Note 12 for additional information.

The amortized cost of mortgage loans on real estate on nonaccrual status (in millions) was as follows, excluding certain mortgage loans on real estate that support our modified coinsurance agreements, where the investment results are passed directly to the reinsurers:

We use loan-to-value (“LTV”) and debt-service coverage ratios as credit quality indicators for our commercial mortgage loans on real estate. The amortized cost of commercial mortgage loans on real estate (dollars in millions) by year of origination and credit quality indicator was as follows:

We use loan performance status as the primary credit quality indicator for our residential mortgage loans on real estate. The amortized cost of residential mortgage loans on real estate (in millions) by year of origination and credit quality indicator was as follows:

Credit Losses on Mortgage Loans on Real Estate

In connection with our recognition of an allowance for credit losses for mortgage loans on real estate, we perform a quantitative analysis using a probability of default/loss given default/exposure at default approach to estimate expected credit losses in our mortgage loan portfolio as well as unfunded commitments related to commercial mortgage loans, exclusive of certain mortgage loans held at fair value.

Changes in the allowance for credit losses on mortgage loans on real estate (in millions) were as follows:

(1)We recognized $1 million of credit loss benefit (expense) related to unfunded commitments for mortgage loans on real estate for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024.

(2)Accrued investment income on mortgage loans on real estate totaled $101 million and $69 million as of March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively, and was excluded from the estimate of credit losses.

Alternative Investments

As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, alternative investments included investments in 370 and 371 different partnerships, respectively, and represented approximately 3% of total investments.

Impairments on Fixed Maturity AFS Securities

Details underlying credit loss benefit (expense) incurred as a result of impairments that were recognized in net income (loss) and included in realized gain (loss) on fixed maturity AFS securities (in millions) were as follows:

Payables for Collateral on Investments

The carrying value of the payables for collateral on investments included on the Consolidated Balance Sheets and the fair value of the related investments or collateral (in millions) consisted of the following:

(1)We obtain collateral based upon contractual provisions with our counterparties. These agreements take into consideration the counterparties’ credit rating as compared to ours, the fair value of the derivative investments and specified thresholds that if exceeded result in the receipt of cash that is typically invested in cash and invested cash or fixed maturity AFS securities. This also includes interest payable on collateral. See Note 5 for additional information.

(2)Our pledged securities under securities lending agreements are included in fixed maturity AFS securities on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. We generally obtain collateral in an amount equal to 102% and 105% of the fair value of the domestic and foreign securities, respectively. We value collateral daily and obtain additional collateral when deemed appropriate. The cash received in our securities lending program is typically invested in cash and invested cash or fixed maturity AFS securities.

(3)Our pledged securities under repurchase agreements are included in fixed maturity AFS securities on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The collateral requirements are generally 80% to 95% of the fair value of the securities, and our agreements with third parties contain contractual provisions to allow for additional collateral to be obtained when necessary. The cash received in our repurchase program is typically invested in cash and invested cash or fixed maturity AFS securities.

(4)Our pledged investments for Federal Home Loan Bank (“FHLB”) of Indianapolis (“FHLBI”) are included in fixed maturity AFS securities and mortgage loans on real estate on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. The collateral requirements are generally 105% to 115% of the fair value for fixed maturity AFS securities and 155% to 175% of the fair value for mortgage loans on real estate. The cash received in these transactions is primarily invested in cash and invested cash or fixed maturity AFS securities.

Increase (decrease) in payables for collateral on investments (in millions) consisted of the following:

We have elected not to offset our securities lending transactions in the consolidated financial statements. The remaining contractual maturities of securities lending transactions accounted for as secured borrowings (in millions) were as follows:

We accept collateral in the form of securities in connection with repurchase agreements. In instances where we are permitted to sell or re-pledge the securities received, we report the fair value of the collateral received and a related obligation to return the collateral in the consolidated financial statements. In addition, we receive securities in connection with securities borrowing agreements that we are permitted to sell or re-pledge. As of March 31, 2025, we had not received any collateral and, therefore, had not sold or repledged any

collateral under these agreements.

We also accept collateral from derivative counterparties in the form of securities that we are permitted to sell or re-pledge. As of March 31, 2025, the fair value of this collateral received that we are permitted to sell or re-pledge was $2.2 billion, and we had re-pledged $64 million of this collateral to cover our collateral requirements.

We had not pledged any fixed maturity AFS securities to derivative counterparties as of March 31, 2025.

Investment Commitments

As of March 31, 2025, our investment commitments were $4.6 billion, which included $3.5 billion of limited partnerships (“LPs”), $828 million of mortgage loans on real estate and $277 million of private placement securities.

Concentrations of Financial Instruments

As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, our most significant investments in one issuer were our investments in securities issued by the Federal National Mortgage Association with a fair value of $892 million and $851 million, respectively, or 1% of total investments, and our investments in securities issued by the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation with a fair value of $604 million and $566 million, respectively, or less than 1% of total investments. These concentrations include fixed maturity AFS, trading and equity securities.

As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, our most significant investments in one industry were our investments in securities in the financial services industry with a fair value of $13.5 billion and $13.4 billion, respectively, or 10% of total investments, and our investments in securities in the consumer non-cyclical industry with a fair value of $13.0 billion and $12.9 billion, respectively, or 10% of total investments. These concentrations include fixed maturity AFS, trading and equity securities.

4. Variable Interest Entities

Consolidated VIEs

Asset information (dollars in millions) for the consolidated variable interest entities (“VIEs”) included on the Consolidated Balance Sheets was as follows:

There wereno gains or losses for consolidated VIEs recognized on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024.

Unconsolidated VIEs

Structured Securities

Through our investment activities, we make passive investments in structured securities issued by VIEs for which we are not the manager. These structured securities include our ABS, residential mortgage-backed securities (“RMBS”) and commercial mortgage-backed securities (“CMBS”). We have not provided financial or other support with respect to these VIEs other than our original investment. We have determined that we are not the primary beneficiary of these VIEs due to the relative size of our investment in comparison to the principal amount of the structured securities issued by the VIEs and the level of credit subordination that reduces our obligation to absorb losses or right to receive benefits. Our maximum exposure to loss on these structured securities is limited to the amortized cost for these investments. We recognize our variable interest in these VIEs at fair value on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. For information about these structured securities, see Note 3.

Limited Partnerships and Limited Liability Companies

We invest in certain LPs and limited liability companies (“LLCs”) that we have concluded are VIEs. Our exposure to loss is limited to the capital we invest in the LPs and LLCs. We do not hold any substantive kick-out or participation rights in the LPs and LLCs, and we do not receive any performance fees or decision maker fees from the LPs and LLCs. Based on our analysis of the LPs and LLCs, we are not the primary beneficiary of the VIEs as we do not have the power to direct the most significant activities of the LPs and LLCs. The carrying amounts of our investments in the LPs and LLCs are recognized in other investments on the Consolidated Balance Sheets and were $5.6 billion and $5.3 billion as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively.

5. Derivative Instruments

We maintain an overall risk management strategy that incorporates the use of derivative instruments to minimize significant unplanned fluctuations in earnings that are caused by interest rate risk, foreign currency exchange risk, equity market risk, basis risk, commodity risk and credit risk. We assess these risks by continually identifying and monitoring changes in our exposures that may adversely affect expected future cash flows and by evaluating hedging opportunities.

Derivative activities are monitored by various management committees. The committees are responsible for overseeing the implementation of various hedging strategies that are developed through the analysis of financial simulation models and other internal and industry sources. The resulting hedging strategies are incorporated into our overall risk management strategies.

See Note 13 for additional disclosures related to the fair value of our derivative instruments.

Interest Rate Contracts

We use derivative instruments as part of our interest rate risk management strategy. These instruments are economic hedges unless otherwise noted and include:

Forward-Starting Interest Rate Swaps

We use forward-starting interest rate swaps to hedge the interest rate exposure within our annuity, life insurance and retirement products.

Interest Rate Cap Corridors

We use interest rate cap corridors to provide a level of protection from the effect of rising interest rates for certain annuity contracts and life insurance products. Interest rate cap corridors involve purchasing an interest rate cap at a specific cap rate and selling an interest rate cap with a higher cap rate. For each corridor, the amount of quarterly payments, if any, is determined by the rate at which the underlying index rate resets above the original capped rate. The corridor limits the benefit the purchaser can receive as the related interest rate index rises above the higher capped rate. There is no additional liability to us other than the purchase price associated with the interest rate cap corridor.

Interest Rate Futures

We use interest rate futures contracts to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in variable annuity and RILA products. These futures contracts require payment between our counterparty and us on a daily basis for changes in the futures index price.

Interest Rate Swap Agreements

We use interest rate swap agreements to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in variable annuity and RILA products.

We also use interest rate swap agreements designated and qualifying as cash flow hedges to hedge the interest rate risk of floating-rate bond coupon payments on certain variable-rate long-term debt and other variable-rate bonds held by replicating a fixed-rate bond.

Finally, we use interest rate swap agreements designated and qualifying as fair value hedges to hedge against changes in the fair value of certain fixed-rate long-term debt and fixed maturity securities due to interest rate risks.

Bond Forwards and Treasury and Reverse Treasury Locks

We use treasury locks designated and qualifying as cash flow hedges to hedge the interest rate exposure related to our issuance of fixed-rate securities or the anticipated future cash flows of floating-rate fixed maturity securities due to changes in interest rates. In addition, we use bond forwards and reverse treasury locks designated and qualifying as cash flow hedges to hedge the interest rate exposure related to the anticipated purchase of fixed-rate securities or the anticipated future cash flows of floating-rate fixed maturity securities due to changes in interest rates. These derivatives are primarily structured to hedge interest rate risk inherent in the assumptions used to price certain liabilities.

Foreign Currency Contracts

We use derivative instruments as part of our foreign currency risk management strategy. These instruments are economic hedges unless otherwise noted and include:

Currency Futures

We use currency futures to hedge foreign exchange risk associated with certain options in variable annuity products. Currency futures exchange one currency for another at a specified date in the future at a specified exchange rate.

Foreign Currency Swaps

We use foreign currency swaps to hedge foreign exchange risk of investments in fixed maturity securities denominated in foreign currencies. A foreign currency swap is a contractual agreement to exchange one currency for another at specified dates in the future at a specified exchange rate.

We also use foreign currency swaps designated and qualifying as cash flow and fair value hedges to hedge foreign exchange risk of investments in fixed maturity securities denominated in foreign currencies.

Foreign Currency Forwards

We use foreign currency forwards to hedge foreign exchange risk of investments in fixed maturity securities denominated in foreign currencies. A foreign currency forward is a contractual agreement to exchange one currency for another at specified dates in the future at a specified current exchange rate.

Equity Market Contracts

We use derivative instruments as part of our equity market risk management strategy that are economic hedges and include:

Call Options Based on the S&P 500®Index and Other Indices

We use call options to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in variable annuity, RILA, fixed indexed annuity, IUL and VUL products.

Our RILA, fixed indexed annuity and IUL contracts permit the holder to elect an interest rate return or an equity market component, where interest credited to the contracts is linked to the performance of the S&P 500 Index or other indices. Policyholders may elect to rebalance index options at renewal dates. At the end of each indexed term, which can be up to six years, we have the opportunity to re-price the indexed component by establishing participation rates, caps, spreads and specified rates, subject to contractual guarantees. We use call options that are highly correlated to the portfolio allocation decisions of our policyholders, such that we are economically hedged with respect to equity returns for the current reset period.

Consumer Price Index Swaps

We use consumer price index swaps to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in fixed annuity products. Consumer price index swaps are contracts entered into at no cost and whose payoff is the difference between the consumer price index inflation rate and the fixed-rate determined as of inception.

Equity Futures

We use equity futures contracts to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in variable annuity and RILA products. These futures contracts require payment between our counterparty and us on a daily basis for changes in the futures index price.

Put Options

We use put options to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in variable annuity, RILA and VUL products. Put options are contracts that require the buyers to pay at a specified future date the amount, if any, by which a specified equity index is less than the strike rate stated in the agreement, applied to a notional amount.

Total Return Swaps

We use total return swaps to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in variable annuity, RILA and VUL products.

In addition, we use total return swaps to hedge a portion of the liability related to our deferred compensation plans. We receive the total return on a portfolio of indexes and pay a floating-rate of interest.

Commodity Contracts

We use commodity contracts to economically hedge certain investments that are closely tied to the changes in commodity values. The commodity contract is an over-the-counter contract that combines a purchase put/sold call to lock in a commodity price within a predetermined range in exchange for a net premium.

Credit Contracts

We use derivative instruments as part of our credit risk management strategy that are economic hedges and include:

Credit Default Swaps – Buying Protection

We use credit default swaps (“CDSs”) to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in variable annuity products.

We buy CDSs to hedge against a drop in bond prices due to credit concerns of certain bond issuers. A CDS allows us to put the bond back to the counterparty at par upon a default event by the bond issuer. A default event is defined as bankruptcy, failure to pay, obligation acceleration or restructuring.

CDSs – Selling Protection

We use CDSs to hedge the liability exposure on certain options in variable annuity products.

We sell CDSs to offer credit protection to policyholders and investors. The CDSs hedge the policyholders and investors against a drop in bond prices due to credit concerns of certain bond issuers. A CDS allows the investor to put the bond back to us at par upon a default event by the bond issuer. A default event is defined as bankruptcy, failure to pay, obligation acceleration or restructuring.

Embedded Derivatives

We have embedded derivatives that include:

RILA, Fixed Indexed Annuity and IUL Contracts Embedded Derivatives

Our RILA, fixed indexed annuity and IUL contracts permit the holder to elect an interest rate return or an equity market component, where interest credited to the contracts is linked to the performance of the S&P 500® Index or other indices. Policyholders may elect to rebalance index options at renewal dates. At the end of each indexed term, which can be up to six years, we have the opportunity to re-price the indexed component by establishing participation rates, caps, spreads and specified rates, subject to contractual guarantees. We use options that are highly correlated to the portfolio allocation decisions of our policyholders, such that we are economically hedged with respect to equity returns for the current reset period.

Reinsurance-Related Embedded Derivatives

We have certain modified coinsurance and coinsurance with funds withheld reinsurance agreements with embedded derivatives related to the withheld assets of the related funds. These derivatives are considered total return swaps with contractual returns that are attributable to various assets and liabilities associated with these reinsurance agreements.

Primary Risks Managed by Derivatives

We have derivative instruments with off-balance-sheet risks whose notional or contract amounts exceed the related credit exposure. Outstanding derivative instruments with off-balance-sheet risks (in millions) were as follows:

(1)These asset and liability balances are presented on a gross basis. Amounts are reported in derivative investments and other liabilities on the Consolidated Balance Sheets after the evaluation for right of offset subject to master netting agreements.

(2)Reported in funds withheld reinsurance liabilities on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

(3)Reported in policyholder account balances and deposit assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

The maturity of the notional amounts of derivative instruments (in millions) was as follows:

(1)As of March 31, 2025, the latest maturity date for which we were hedging our exposure to the variability in future cash flows for these instruments was April 20, 2067.

(2)As of March 31, 2025, the latest maturity date for which we were hedging our exposure to the variability in future cash flows for these instruments was June 16, 2061.

The following amounts (in millions) were recorded on the Consolidated Balance Sheets related to cumulative basis adjustments for fair value hedges:

(1)Includes $(306) million and $(310) million of unamortized adjustments from discontinued hedges as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively.

The change in our unrealized gain (loss) on derivative instruments within accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) (“AOCI”) (in millions) was as follows:

(1)The OCI offset is reported within net investment income on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

(2)The OCI offset is reported within interest and debt expense on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

(3)The OCI offset is reported within realized gain (loss) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

The effects of qualifying and non-qualifying hedges (in millions) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) were as follows:

As of March 31, 2025, $76 million of the deferred net gains (losses) on derivative instruments in AOCI were expected to be reclassified to earnings during the next 12 months. This reclassification would be due primarily to interest rate variances related to our interest rate swap agreements.

For the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, there were no material reclassifications to earnings due to hedged firm commitments no longer deemed probable or due to hedged forecasted transactions that had not occurred by the end of the originally specified time period.

As of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, we did not have any exposure related to CDSs for which we are the seller.

Credit Risk

We are exposed to credit losses in the event of non-performance by our counterparties on various derivative contracts and reflect assumptions regarding the credit or non-performance risk. The non-performance risk is based upon assumptions for each counterparty’s credit spread over the estimated weighted average life of the counterparty exposure, less collateral held. As of March 31, 2025, the non-performance risk adjustment was zero. The credit risk associated with such agreements is minimized by entering into agreements with financial institutions with long-standing, superior performance records. Additionally, we maintain a policy of requiring derivative contracts to be governed by an International Swaps and Derivatives Association (“ISDA”) Master Agreement. We are required to maintain minimum ratings as a matter of routine practice in negotiating ISDA agreements. Under nearly all of our ISDA agreements, our insurance subsidiaries have agreed to maintain certain financial strength ratings. A downgrade below these levels could result in termination of derivative contracts, at which time any amounts payable by us would be dependent on the market value of the underlying derivative contracts. In certain transactions, we and the counterparty have entered into a credit support annex requiring either party to post collateral when net exposures exceed pre-determined thresholds. These thresholds vary by counterparty and credit rating. The amount of such exposure is essentially the net replacement cost or market value less collateral held for such agreements with each counterparty if the net market value is in our favor. We did not have any exposure as of March 31, 2025, or December 31, 2024.

The amounts recognized (in millions) by S&P credit rating of counterparty, for which we had the right to reclaim cash collateral or were obligated to return cash collateral, were as follows:

Balance Sheet Offsetting

Information related to the effects of offsetting on the Consolidated Balance Sheets (in millions) was as follows:

(1)Excludes excess non-cash collateral received of $941 million, as the collateral offset is limited to the net estimated fair value of derivatives after application of netting arrangements.

(2)Excludes excess non-cash collateral pledged of $1 million, as the collateral offset is limited to the net estimated fair value of derivatives after application of netting arrangements.

(1)Excludes excess non-cash collateral received of $817 million, as the collateral offset is limited to the net estimated fair value of derivatives after application of netting arrangements.

(2)Excludes excess non-cash collateral pledged of $39 million, as the collateral offset is limited to the net estimated fair value of derivatives after application of netting arrangements.

6. DAC, VOBA, DSI and DFEL

The following table reconciles deferred acquisition costs (“DAC”), value of business acquired (“VOBA”) and deferred sales inducements (“DSI”) (in millions) to the Consolidated Balance Sheets:

The following table reconciles deferred front-end loads (“DFEL”) (in millions) to the Consolidated Balance Sheets:

(1)Represents DFEL reported in Other Operations attributable to the indemnity reinsurance agreement with Protective that is excluded from the following tables. We reported $53 million and $51 million of ceded DFEL in reinsurance recoverables on the Consolidated Balance Sheets as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively.

The following tables summarize the changes in DAC (in millions):

DAC amortization expense of $263 million and $249 million was recorded in commissions and other expenses on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

The following tables summarize the changes in VOBA (in millions):

VOBA amortization expense of $12 million and $13 million was recorded in commissions and other expenses on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. No additions or write-offs were recorded for each respective period.

The following tables summarize the changes in DSI (in millions):

DSI amortization expense of $3 million was recorded in interest credited on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024.

The following tables summarize the changes in DFEL (in millions):

DFEL amortization of $104 million and $74 million was recorded in fee income on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

7. Reinsurance

Fortitude Re

Effective October 1, 2023, we entered intotwo reinsurance agreements with Fortitude Reinsurance Company Ltd. (“Fortitude Re”), an authorized Bermuda reinsurer with reciprocal jurisdiction reinsurer status in Indiana, to reinsure certain blocks of in-force UL with secondary guarantees (“ULSG”), MoneyGuard® and fixed annuity products, including group pension annuities. Fortitude Re represents our largest reinsurance exposure as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024.

The first agreement was structured as a coinsurance treaty between us and Fortitude Re for the ULSG and fixed annuities blocks. As significant insurance risk was transferred for ULSG products and life-contingent annuities, amounts recoverable from Fortitude Re were $10.6 billion as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024. We reported a deferred loss on the transaction of $2.6 billion as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024. We amortized $23 million and $22 million of the deferred loss during the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. Annuities that are not life-contingent do not contain significant insurance risk; therefore, we reported deposit assets for these contracts of $2.8 billion and $3.0 billion as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively.

The second agreement was structured as coinsurance with funds withheld for the MoneyGuard block; however, as we retained significant insurance risk under the agreement, we reported deposit assets of $8.2 billion and $8.1 billion as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively. In this coinsurance with funds withheld reinsurance agreement, we as the ceding company withhold, and therefore retain, the assets backing the deposit assets. We held investments with a carrying value of $9.2 billion and $9.3 billion in support of reserves associated with the Fortitude Re transaction in a funds withheld arrangement as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively, which consisted of the following (in millions):

8. MRBs

The following table reconciles market risk benefits (“MRBs”) (in millions) to MRB assets and MRB liabilities on the Consolidated Balance Sheets:

The following table summarizes the balances of and changes in net MRB (assets) liabilities (in millions):

(1) Consists primarily of changes in MRB assets and liabilities related to differences between separate account fund performance and modeled indices and other changes such as actual to expected policyholder behavior.

(2) Net amount at risk (“NAR”) is the current guaranteed minimum benefit in excess of the current account balance as of the balance sheet date. For guaranteed living benefits (“GLBs”), the guaranteed minimum benefit is calculated based on the present value of GLB payments. Our variable annuity products may offer more than one type of guaranteed benefit rider to a policyholder. In instances where more than one guaranteed benefit feature exists in a contract, the guaranteed benefit rider that provides the highest NAR is used in the calculation.

See “MRBs” in Note 12 for details related to our fair value judgments, assumptions, inputs and valuation methodology.

9. Separate Accounts

The following table presents the fair value of separate account assets (in millions) reported on the Consolidated Balance Sheets by major investment category:

The following table reconciles separate account liabilities (in millions) to the Consolidated Balance Sheets:

(1) Represents separate account liabilities reported in Other Operations primarily attributable to the indemnity reinsurance agreements with Protective ($47 million and $49 million as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively) that are excluded from the following tables.

The following table summarizes the balances of and changes in separate account liabilities (in millions):

10. Policyholder Account Balances

The following table reconciles policyholder account balances (in millions) to the Consolidated Balance Sheets:

(1) Represents policyholder account balances reported primarily in Other Operations attributable to the indemnity reinsurance agreements with Protective ($4.3 billion and $4.4 billion as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively) and funding agreements, that are excluded from the following tables. See “Funding Agreements” below for more information.

The following table summarizes the balances and changes in policyholder account balances (in millions):

(1)NAR is the current guaranteed minimum benefit in excess of the current account balance as of the balance sheet date. For GLBs, the guaranteed minimum benefit is calculated based on the present value of GLB payments. Our variable annuity products may offer more than one type of guaranteed benefit rider to a policyholder. In instances where more than one guaranteed benefit rider exists in a contract, the guaranteed benefit rider that provides the highest NAR is used in the calculation.

(2)Calculation is based on total account balances and includes both policyholder account balances and separate account balances.

Funding Agreements

FABN Program

The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company (“LNL”) established a $5.0 billion funding agreement-backed notes (“FABN”) program in 2024 pursuant to which LNL may issue unsecured funding agreements to an unaffiliated and unconsolidated special purpose statutory trust (the “Trust”) that will then issue medium-term notes for which payment of interest and principal is secured by such funding agreement. Funding agreements issued to the Trust are reported in policyholder account balances on the Consolidated Balance Sheets, and the associated interest is reported within interest credited on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). We had funding agreements issued under the program of $500 million as of March 31, 2025, compared tonone as of December 31, 2024.

The following table presents policyholder account balances (in millions) by range of guaranteed minimum crediting rates and the related range of difference, in basis points, between the interest being credited to policyholders and the respective guaranteed contract minimums:

(1)Consists of indexed account balances that include the fair value of embedded derivative instruments, non-life contingent payout annuity account balances, short-term dollar cost averaging annuities business and policy loans.

11. Future Contract Benefits

The following table reconciles future contract benefits (in millions) to the Consolidated Balance Sheets:

(1) See “Liability for Future Policy Benefits” below for further information.

(2) See “Liability for Future Claims” below for further information.

(3) See “Additional Liabilities for Other Insurance Benefits” below for further information.

(4) Represents future contract benefits reported in Other Operations primarily attributable to the indemnity reinsurance agreements with Protective ($5.4 billion as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024) and Swiss Re ($1.8 billion as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024) that are excluded from the following tables.

(5) Represents other miscellaneous reserves that are not representative of long-duration contracts and are excluded from the following tables.

Liability for Future Policy Benefits

The following table summarizes the balances of and changes in the present values of expected net premiums and liability for future policy benefits (“LFPB”) (in millions, except years):

(1) Includes deferred profit liability within Payout Annui ties of $65 million and $60 million as of March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

For the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, Payout Annuities and Traditional Life did not have any significantly different actual experience compared to expected.

The following table summarizes the discounted and undiscounted expected future gross premiums and expected future benefit payments (in millions):

The following table summarizes the gross premiums and interest accretion (in millions) recognized in insurance premiums and benefits, respectively, on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss):

Liability for Future Claims

The following table summarizes the balances of and changes in liability for future claims (in millions, except years):

For the three months ended March 31, 2025, we experienced more favorable reported incidence and claim terminations than assumed.

For the three months ended March 31, 2024, we experienced more favorable claim terminations than assumed.

The following table summarizes the discounted and undiscounted expected future benefit payments (in millions):

The following table summarizes the gross premiums and interest accretion (in millions) recognized in insurance premiums and benefits, respectively, on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss):

Additional Liabilities for Other Insurance Benefits

The following table summarizes the balances of and changes in additional liabilities for other insurance benefits (in millions, except years):

For the three months ended March 31, 2025, we did not have any significantly different actual experience compared to expected.

For the three months ended March 31, 2024, we had unfavorable actual mortality experience compared to expected on reinsured and retained business.

The following table summarizes the gross assessments and interest accretion (in millions) recognized in insurance premiums and benefits, respectively, on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss):

12. Fair Value of Financial Instruments

Financial Instruments Carried at Fair Value

The following summarizes our financial instruments carried at fair value (in millions) on a recurring basis by the fair value hierarchy levels:

(1)Derivative investment assets and liabilities are presented within the fair value hierarchy on a gross basis by derivative type and not on a master netting basis by counterparty.

The following summarizes changes to our financial instruments carried at fair value (in millions) and classified within Level 3 of the fair value hierarchy. The gains and losses below may include changes in fair value due in part to observable inputs that are a component of the valuation methodology. The summary schedule excludes changes to MRB assets and MRB liabilities as these balances are rolled forward in Note 8.

(1)The changes in fair value of the interest rate swaps are offset by an adjustment to derivative investments (see Note 5).

(2)Amortization and accretion of premiums and discounts are included in net investment income on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss). Gains (losses) from sales, maturities, settlements and calls and credit loss expense are included in realized gain (loss) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

(3)Gains (losses) from the changes in fair value are included in market risk benefit gain (loss) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

(4)Gains (losses) from the changes in fair value are included in realized gain (loss) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

The following provides the components of the items included in issuances, sales, maturities, settlements and calls, net, (in millions) as reported above:

The following summarizes changes in unrealized gains (losses) included in net income related to financial instruments carried at fair value classified within Level 3 that we still held (in millions):

(1) Included in realized gain (loss) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

(2) Included in market risk benefit gain (loss) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

The following summarizes changes in unrealized gains (losses) included in OCI, net of tax, related to financial instruments carried at fair value classified within Level 3 that we still held (in millions):

The following provides the components of the transfers into and out of Level 3 (in millions) as reported above:

Transfers into and out of Level 3 are generally the result of observable market information on financial instruments no longer being available or becoming available to our pricing vendors. For the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, transfers in and out of Level 3 were attributable primarily to the financial instruments’ observable market information no longer being available or becoming available.

The following summarizes the fair value (in millions), valuation techniques and significant unobservable inputs of the Level 3 fair value measurements as of March 31, 2025:

The following summarizes the fair value (in millions), valuation techniques and significant unobservable inputs of the Level 3 fair value measurements as of December 31, 2024:

(1) Unobservable inputs were weighted by the relative fair value of the instruments, unless otherwise noted.

(2) The liquidity/duration adjustment input represents an estimated market participant composite of adjustments attributable to liquidity premiums, expected durations, structures and credit quality that would be applied to the market observable information of an investment.

(3) The lapse input represents the estimated probability of a contract surrendering during a year, and thereby forgoing any future benefits. The range for indexed annuity contracts represents the lapses during the surrender charge period.

(4) The utilization of GLB withdrawals input represents the estimated percentage of policyholders that utilize the GLB withdrawal riders.

(5) The utilization factors are applied to the present value of claims or premiums, as appropriate, in the MRB calculation to estimate the impact of inefficient GLB withdrawal behavior, including taking less than or more than the maximum GLB withdrawal.

(6) The non-performance risk input represents the estimated additional credit spread that market participants would apply to the market observable discount rate when pricing a contract. The non-performance risk input was weighted by the absolute value of the sensitivity of the reserve to the non-performance risk assumption.

(7) The mortality input represents the estimated probability of when an individual belonging to a particular group, categorized according to age or some other factor such as gender, will die.

(8) The volatility input represents overall volatilities assumed for the underlying variable annuity funds, which include a mixture of equity and fixed-income assets. Volatility assumptions vary by fund due to the benchmarking of different indices. The volatility input was weighted by the relative account balance assigned to each index.

(9) The mortality is based on a combination of company and industry experience, adjusted for improvement factors.

(10) A weighted average input range is not a meaningful measurement for lapse, utilization factors or mortality.

(11) The fair value inputs for ceded MRBs are consistent with those used to value MRB assets and liabilities.

From the table above, we have excluded Level 3 fair value measurements obtained from independent, third-party pricing sources. We do not develop the significant inputs used to measure the fair value of these assets and liabilities, and the information regarding the significant inputs is not readily available to us. Independent broker-quoted fair values are non-binding quotes developed by market makers or broker-dealers obtained from third-party sources recognized as market participants. The fair value of a broker-quoted asset or liability is based solely on the receipt of an updated quote from a single market maker or a broker-dealer recognized as a market participant as we do not adjust broker quotes when used as the fair value measurement for an asset or liability. Significant increases or decreases in any of the quotes received from a third-party broker-dealer may result in a significantly higher or lower fair value measurement.

The embedded derivative liability associated with Fortitude Re was excluded from the above table. As discussed in Note 7, this embedded derivative liability was created through a coinsurance with funds withheld reinsurance agreement where the investments supporting the reinsurance agreement were withheld by and continue to be reported on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. This reinsurance-related embedded derivative is valued as a total return swap with reference to the fair value of the investments held by us. Accordingly, the unobservable inputs utilized in the valuation of the reinsurance-related embedded derivative are a component of the investments supporting the reinsurance agreement that are reported on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

Changes in any of the significant inputs presented in the table above would have resulted in a significant change in the fair value measurement of the asset or liability as follows:

•Investments – An increase in the liquidity/duration adjustment input would have resulted in a decrease in the fair value measurement.

•Indexed annuity contracts embedded derivatives – For direct embedded derivatives, an increase in the lapse or mortality inputs would have resulted in a decrease in the fair value measurement.

•MRBs – Assuming our MRBs are in a liability position: an increase in our lapse, non-performance risk or mortality inputs would have resulted in a decrease in the fair value measurement, except for policies with guaranteed death benefit (“GDB”) riders only, in which case an increase in mortality inputs would have resulted in an increase in the fair value measurement.

For each category discussed above, the unobservable inputs are not inter-related; therefore, a directional change in one input would not have affected the other inputs.

As part of our ongoing valuation process, we assess the reasonableness of our valuation techniques or models and make adjustments as necessary.

Fair Value Option

Mortgage loans on real estate, net of allowance for credit losses, as reported on the Consolidated Balance Sheets, includes mortgage loans on real estate for which the fair value option was elected. The fair value option allows us to elect fair value as an alternative measurement for mortgage loans not otherwise reported at fair value. We have made these elections for certain mortgage loans associated with modified coinsurance agreements to help mitigate the inconsistency in earnings that would otherwise result from the use of embedded derivatives included with these loans. Changes in fair value are reflected in realized gain (loss) on the Consolidated Statement of Comprehensive Income (Loss). Changes in fair value due to instrument-specific credit risk are estimated using changes in credit spreads and quality ratings for the period reported. Mortgage loans on real estate for which the fair value option was elected are valued using third-party pricing services. We have procedures in place to review the valuations each quarter to ensure they are reasonable, including utilizing a separate third party to reperform the valuation for a selection of mortgage loans on an annual basis. Due to lack of observable inputs, mortgage loans electing the fair value option are classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

The fair value and aggregate contractual principal for mortgage loans on real estate where the fair value option was elected (in millions) were as follows:

For information on current and past due composition and accruing status for loans where we have elected the fair value option, see Note 3.

Financial Instruments Not Carried at Fair Value

The following summarizes the fair value by the fair value hierarchy levels and the carrying amount of our financial instruments not carried at fair value (in millions):

The following discussion outlines the methodologies and assumptions used to determine the fair value of our financial instruments not carried at fair value on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. Considerable judgment is required to develop these assumptions used to measure fair value. Accordingly, the estimates shown above are not necessarily indicative of the amounts that would be realized in a one-time, current market exchange of all of our financial instruments.

The fair value of mortgage loans on real estate, excluding mortgage loans accounted for using the fair value option, is established using a discounted cash flow method based on credit rating, maturity and future income. The ratings for mortgages in good standing are based on property type, location, market conditions, occupancy, debt-service coverage, LTV, quality of tenancy, borrower and payment record. The fair value for impaired mortgage loans is based on the present value of expected future cash flows discounted at the loan’s effective interest rate, the loan’s market price or the fair value of the collateral if the loan is collateral dependent. The inputs used to measure the fair value of our mortgage loans on real estate, excluding mortgage loans accounted for using the fair value option, are classified as Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy.

Other Investments

The carrying value of our assets classified as other investments, excluding short-term investments, approximates fair value. Other investments includes primarily LPs and other privately held investments that are accounted for using the equity method of accounting and the carrying value is based on our proportional share of the net assets of the LPs. Other investments also includes FHLB stock carried at cost and periodically evaluated for impairment based on ultimate recovery of par value. The inputs used to measure the fair value of our LPs, other privately held investments and FHLB stock are classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy. The remaining assets in other investments include cash collateral receivables and securities that are not LPs or other privately held investments. The inputs used to measure the fair value of these assets are classified as Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy.

Policy Loans

The carrying value for policy loans are the unpaid principal balances. Policy loans are fully collateralized by the cash surrender value of underlying insurance policies. As a result, the carrying value of the policy loans approximates the fair value. The inputs used to measure the fair value of these assets are classified as Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy.

Cash and Invested Cash

Cash and invested cash is carried at cost. The inputs used to measure its fair value are classified as Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy.

Policyholder Account Balances – Certain Investment Contracts and Other Liabilities

Policyholder account balances and other liabilities include account balances of certain investment contracts that exclude significant mortality or morbidity risk. The fair value of the account balances of certain investment contracts is based on a discounted cash flow model as of the balance sheet date. The inputs used to measure the fair value of these policyholder account balances are classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

Policyholder Account Balances – Funding Agreements

The fair value of funding agreements is based on quoted market prices and is measured using inputs that are classified as Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy. For more information on funding agreements, see Note 10.

Short-Term and Long-Term Debt

The fair value of short-term and long-term debt is based on quoted market prices. The inputs used to measure the fair value of our short-term and long-term debt are classified as Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy.

Funds Withheld Reinsurance Liabilities

Funds withheld reinsurance liabilities includes our obligation to pay reinsurers under coinsurance with funds withheld and modified coinsurance arrangements where the Company is the cedant. This liability includes embedded derivatives, which are total return swaps with contractual returns that are attributable to the Company’s reinsurance agreements. The embedded derivatives are carried at fair value and thus excluded from the preceding table. The inputs used to measure the remaining balance are classified as Level 3 within the fair value hierarchy.

13. Contingencies and Commitments

Contingencies

Regulatory and Litigation Matters

Regulatory bodies, such as state insurance departments, the SEC, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, tax authorities and other regulatory bodies regularly make inquiries and conduct examinations, investigations or audits concerning our compliance with, among other things, insurance laws, securities laws, tax laws, laws governing the activities of broker-dealers and registered investment advisers and unclaimed property laws. Tax-related matters can include disputes with taxing authorities, ongoing audits, evaluation of filing positions and any potential assessments related thereto.

LNC is involved in various pending or threatened legal or regulatory proceedings, including purported class actions, arising from the conduct of business both in the ordinary course and otherwise. In some of the matters, very large and/or indeterminate amounts, including punitive and treble damages, are sought. Modern pleading practice in the U.S. permits considerable variation in the assertion of monetary damages or other relief. Jurisdictions may permit claimants not to specify the monetary damages sought or may permit claimants to state only that the amount sought is sufficient to invoke the jurisdiction of the trial court. In addition, jurisdictions may permit plaintiffs to allege monetary damages in amounts well exceeding verdicts obtained in the jurisdiction for similar matters. This variability in pleadings, together with the actual experiences of LNC in litigating or resolving through settlement numerous claims over an extended period of time, demonstrates to management that the monetary relief which may be specified in a lawsuit or claim bears little relevance to its merits or disposition value.

Due to the unpredictable nature of litigation, the outcome of a litigation matter and the amount or range of potential loss at particular points in time is normally difficult to ascertain. Uncertainties can include how fact finders will evaluate documentary evidence and the credibility and effectiveness of witness testimony, and how trial and appellate courts will apply the law in the context of the pleadings or evidence presented, whether by motion practice, or at trial or on appeal. Disposition valuations are also subject to the uncertainty of how opposing parties and their counsel will themselves view the relevant evidence and applicable law.

We establish liabilities for litigation and regulatory loss contingencies when information related to the loss contingencies shows both that it is probable that a loss has been incurred and the amount of the loss can be reasonably estimated. It is possible that some matters could require us to pay damages or make other expenditures or establish accruals in amounts that could not be estimated as of March 31, 2025.

For some matters, the Company is able to estimate a reasonably possible range of loss. For such matters in which a loss is probable, an accrual has been made. For such matters where a loss is believed to be reasonably possible, but not probable, no accrual has been made. Accordingly, the estimate contained in this paragraph reflects two types of matters. For some matters included within this estimate, an accrual has been made, but there is a reasonable possibility that an exposure exists in excess of the amount accrued. In these cases, the estimate reflects the reasonably possible range of loss in excess of the accrued amount. For other matters included within this estimation, no accrual has been made because a loss, while potentially estimable, is believed to be reasonably possible but not probable. In these cases, the estimate reflects the reasonably possible loss or range of loss. As of March 31, 2025, we estimate the aggregate range of reasonably possible losses, including amounts in excess of amounts accrued for these matters as of such date, to be up to approximately $150 million, after-tax. Any estimate is not an indication of expected loss, if any, or of the Company’s maximum possible loss exposure on such matters.

For other matters, we are not currently able to estimate the reasonably possible loss or range of loss. We are often unable to estimate the possible loss or range of loss until developments in such matters have provided sufficient information to support an assessment of the range of possible loss, such as quantification of a damage demand from plaintiffs, discovery from other parties and investigation of factual allegations, rulings by the court on motions or appeals, analysis by experts and the progress of settlement negotiations. On a quarterly and annual basis, we review relevant information with respect to litigation contingencies and update our accruals, disclosures and estimates of reasonably possible losses or ranges of loss based on such reviews.

Among other matters, we are presently engaged in litigation, including relating to cost of insurance rates (“Cost of Insurance and Other Litigation”), as described below. No accrual has been made for some of these matters. Although a loss is believed to be reasonably possible for these matters, for some of these matters, we are not able to estimate a reasonably possible amount or range of potential liability. An adverse outcome in one or more of these matters may have a material impact on the consolidated financial statements, but, based on information currently known, management does not believe those cases are likely to have such an impact.

Cost of Insurance and Other Litigation

Cost of Insurance Litigation

Glover v. Connecticut General Life Insurance Company and The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company, filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of Connecticut, No. 3:16-cv-00827, is a putative class action that was served on LNL on June 8, 2016. Plaintiff is the owner of a universal life insurance policy who alleges that LNL charged more for non-guaranteed cost of insurance than permitted by the policy. Plaintiff seeks to represent all universal life and variable universal life policyholders who owned policies containing non-guaranteed cost of insurance provisions that are similar to those of plaintiff’s policy and seeks damages on behalf of all such policyholders. On January 11, 2019, the court dismissed plaintiff’s complaint in its entirety. In response, plaintiff filed a motion for leave to amend the complaint, which, on September 25, 2023, the court granted in part and denied in part. Plaintiff filed an amended complaint on October 10, 2023. On March 7, 2024, the parties entered into a provisional settlement agreement that encompasses policies that are at issue in this case, which also includes all policies at issue in the lawsuits captioned Iwanski v. First Penn-Pacific Life Insurance Company, TVPX ARS INC., as Securities Intermediary for Consolidated Wealth Management, LTD. v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Companyand Vida Longevity Fund, LP v. Lincoln Life & Annuity Company of New York, each of which are described below. The Glover plaintiffs’ motion for preliminary approval of the provisional settlement was filed on March 8, 2024, and on September 4, 2024, the court granted preliminary approval of the provisional settlement. On December 16, 2024, the court heard oral argument on the issue of whether to grant final approval of the provisional settlement. The provisional settlement, which is still subject to final approval of the court, consists of a $147.5 million pre-tax cash payment for Glover class members (inclusive of all policyholders in Iwanski, TVPX ARS INC. and Vida). As of March 31, 2025, the total provisional settlement amount of $147.5 million, pre-tax, remains accrued.

Iwanski v. First Penn-Pacific Life Insurance Company (“FPP”), No. 2:18-cv-01573, filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania is a putative class action that was filed on April 13, 2018. Plaintiff alleges that defendant FPP breached the terms of his life insurance policy by deducting non-guaranteed cost of insurance charges in excess of what is permitted by the policies. Plaintiff seeks to represent all owners of universal life insurance policies issued by FPP containing non-guaranteed cost of insurance provisions that are similar to those of Plaintiff’s policy and seeks damages on their behalf. Breach of contract is the only cause of action asserted. On March 7, 2024, the parties in Glover v. Connecticut General Life Insurance Company and The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company (discussed above) entered into a provisional settlement agreement that encompasses all policies at issue in this case, as the Glover case is inclusive of all policies in this case, as well as in the lawsuits captioned TVPX ARS INC., as Securities Intermediary for Consolidated Wealth Management, LTD. v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Companyand Vida Longevity Fund, LP v. Lincoln Life & Annuity Company of New York (both discussed below). The Glover plaintiffs’ motion for preliminary approval of the provisional settlement was filed on March 8, 2024, and on September 4, 2024, the court granted preliminary approval of the provisional settlement. On December 16, 2024, the court heard oral argument on the issue of whether to grant final approval of the provisional settlement. The provisional settlement, which is still subject to final approval of the court, consists of a $147.5 million pre-tax cash payment for Glover class members (inclusive of all policyholders in Iwanski, TVPX ARS INC. and Vida). A motion has been filed to stay the proceedings in this matter pending the completion of the settlement approval process in Glover.

TVPX ARS INC., as Securities Intermediary for Consolidated Wealth Management, LTD. v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company, filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, No. 2:18-cv-02989, is a putative class action that was filed on July 17, 2018. Plaintiff alleges that LNL charged more for non-guaranteed cost of insurance than permitted by the policy. Plaintiff seeks to represent all universal life and variable universal life policyholders who own policies issued by LNL or its predecessors containing non-guaranteed cost of insurance provisions that are similar to those of Plaintiff’s policy and seeks damages on behalf of all such policyholders. On March 7, 2024, the parties in Glover v. Connecticut General Life Insurance Company and The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company (discussed above) entered into a provisional settlement agreement that encompasses all policies at issue in this case, as the Glover case is inclusive of all policies in this case, as well as in the lawsuits captioned Iwanski v. First Penn-Pacific Life Insurance Company(discussed above) and Vida Longevity Fund, LP v. Lincoln Life & Annuity Company of New York (discussed below). The Glover plaintiffs’ motion for preliminary approval of the provisional settlement was filed on March 8, 2024, and on September 4, 2024, the court granted preliminary approval of the provisional settlement. On December 16, 2024, the court heard oral argument on the issue of whether to grant final approval of the provisional settlement. The provisional settlement, which is still subject to final approval of the court, consists of a $147.5 million pre-tax cash payment for Glover class members (inclusive of all policyholders in Iwanski, TVPX ARS INC. and Vida). A motion has been filed to stay the proceedings in this matter pending the completion of the settlement approval process in Glover.

Vida Longevity Fund, LP v. Lincoln Life & Annuity Company of New York, pending in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, No. 1:19-cv-06004, is a putative class action that was filed on June 27, 2019. Plaintiff alleges that Lincoln Life & Annuity Company of New York (“LLANY”) charged more for non-guaranteed cost of insurance than was permitted by the policies. On March 31, 2022, the court issued an order granting plaintiff’s motion for class certification and certified a class of all current or former owners of six universal life insurance products issued by LLANY that were assessed a cost of insurance charge any time on or after June 27, 2013. Plaintiff seeks damages on behalf of the class. On April 19, 2023, LLANY filed a motion for summary judgment. On March 7, 2024, the parties in Glover v. Connecticut General Life Insurance Company and The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company (discussed above) entered into a provisional settlement agreement that encompasses all policies at issue in this case, as the Glover case is inclusive of all policies in this case, as well as in the lawsuits captioned Iwanski v. First Penn-Pacific Life Insurance Companyand TVPX ARS INC., as Securities Intermediary for Consolidated Wealth Management, LTD. v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company(both discussed above). The Glover plaintiffs’ motion for preliminary approval of the provisional settlement was filed on March 8, 2024, and on September 4, 2024, the court granted preliminary approval of the provisional settlement. On December 16, 2024, the court heard oral argument on the issue of whether to grant final approval of the provisional settlement. The provisional settlement, which is still subject to final approval of the court, consists of a $147.5 million pre-tax cash payment for Glover class members (inclusive of all policyholders in Iwanski, TVPX ARS INC. and Vida). On March 29, 2024, the court issued its summary judgment decision, granting LLANY’s motion in part and denying it in part, and entering summary judgment against twenty-two policyholders that the court determined were not economically harmed. On June 25, 2024, the court granted LLANY’s April 12, 2024, motion to stay proceedings in this matter pending the completion of the approval process in Glover.

Angus v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company, pending in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, No. 2:22-cv-01878, is a putative class action filed on May 13, 2022. Plaintiff alleges that defendant LNL breached the terms of her life insurance policy by deducting non-guaranteed cost of insurance charges in excess of what is permitted by the policies. Plaintiff seeks to represent all owners of universal life insurance policies issued or insured by LNL or its predecessors containing non-guaranteed cost of insurance provisions that are similar to those of plaintiff’s policy and seeks damages on their behalf. Breach of contract is the only cause of action asserted. On August 26, 2022, LNL filed a motion to dismiss. We are vigorously defending this matter.

EFG Bank AG, Cayman Branch, et al. v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company, No. 17-cv-02592-GJP (E.D. Pa.), filed on February 1, 2017; Conestoga Trust, et al, v. Lincoln National Corp., et al., No. 18-cv-02379-GJP (E.D. Pa.), filed on June 6, 2018; Brighton Trustees, LLC, et al. v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company, No. 2:23-cv-2251-GJP (E.D. Pa.), filed on April 20, 2023 (and transferred to the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania on June 12, 2023); and Ryan K. Crayne, on behalf of and as trustee for Carlton Peak Trust v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company, No. 2:24-cv-00053-GJP, filed on November 17, 2023 (and transferred to the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania on January 4, 2024) are consolidated civil actions pending in the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. In each case other than Crayne, plaintiffs purport to own universal life insurance policies or interests in universal life insurance policies originally issued by Jefferson-Pilot (now LNL). In Crayne, plaintiffs purport to own litigation claims concerning universal life policies originally issued by Jefferson-Pilot (now LNL). Among other things, plaintiffs in each case allege that LNL (or, in Conestoga, LNL and LNC) breached the terms of policyholders’ contracts when it increased non-guaranteed cost of insurance rates beginning in 2016 (or, in Brighton Trustees, in 2016 and 2017). We are vigorously defending these consolidated matters.

Wells Fargo Bank, N.A, solely in its capacity as securities intermediary v. The Lincoln National Life Insurance Company, pending in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, No. 25-cv-00152-GJP (E.D. Pa.), is a civil action initially filed on December 4, 2024, in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Indiana. On January 9, 2025, this case was transferred to the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. Plaintiff, purporting to act solely in its capacity as securities intermediary for the beneficial owner of universal life insurance policies originally issued by Jefferson-Pilot (now LNL), alleges, among other things, that LNL breached the terms of Plaintiff’s contracts when it increased non-guaranteed cost of insurance rates beginning in 2016 and 2017. We are vigorously defending this matter.

Other Litigation

Henry Morgan et al. v. Lincoln National Corporation d/b/a Lincoln Financial Group, et al, filed in the District Court of the 14 th Judicial District of Dallas County, Texas, No. DC-23-02492, is a putative class action that was filed on February 22, 2023. Plaintiffs Henry Morgan, Susan Smith, Charles Smith, Laura Seale, Terri Cogburn, Laura Baesel, Kathleen Walton, Terry Warner, and Toni Hale (“Plaintiffs”) allege on behalf of a putative class that Lincoln National Corporation d/b/a Lincoln Financial Group, LNL and LLANY (together, “Lincoln”), FMR, LLC, and Fidelity Product Services, LLC (“Fidelity”) created and marketed misleading and deceptive insurance products with attributes of investment products. The putative class comprises all individuals and entities who purchased Lincoln OptiBlend products that allocated account monies to the 1-Year Fidelity AIM Dividend Participation Account, between January 1, 2020, to December 31, 2022. Plaintiffs assert the following claims individually and on behalf of the class, (1) violations of the Texas Deceptive Trade Practices Act against Lincoln; (2) common-law fraud against Lincoln; (3) negligent misrepresentation against Lincoln and Fidelity; and (4) aiding and abetting fraud against Fidelity. Plaintiffs allege they suffered damages from “a missed investment return of approximately 5-6%” and mitigation damages. They seek actual, consequential and punitive damages, as well as pre-judgment and post-judgment interest, attorney’s fees and litigation costs. On March 31, 2023, the Lincoln defendants filed a notice of removal removing the action from the 14 th Judicial District of Dallas County, Texas, to the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, Dallas Division. On May 8, 2023, the Lincoln defendants and the Fidelity defendants filed motions to dismiss, which remain pending. We are vigorously defending this matter.

Donald C. Meade v. Lincoln National Corporation, Ellen Cooper, Dennis Glass, and Randal Freitag(“Defendants”), No. 2:24-cv-01704, pending in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, is a putative class action that was filed on April 23, 2024. On June 24, 2024, Local 295 IBT Employer Group Pension Trust Fund (“Local 295”) filed a motion for appointment as lead plaintiff. On October 23, 2024, the court granted this motion. Local 295 seeks to represent persons and entities that purchased or otherwise acquired Lincoln National Corporation common stock between December 8, 2021, and November 2, 2022, inclusive (the “Class Period”). On December 23, 2024, plaintiff filed an amended complaint. Plaintiff alleges claims under Section 10(b) and Section 20(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, and under SEC Rule 10b-5. Plaintiff alleges that, throughout the Class Period, Defendants made materially false and/or misleading statements, as well as failed to disclose material adverse facts that plaintiff alleges Defendants knew, or recklessly disregarded, at the time the statements were made, about the Company’s business, operations and prospects with respect to its Guaranteed Universal Life policies and their lapse rates. The action seeks unspecified compensatory damages and reasonable costs and expenses incurred in this action, including counsel fees and expert fees, together with equitable/injunctive relief or such other relief as the court may deem just and proper. On February 21, 2025, Defendants filed a motion to dismiss. We are vigorously defending this matter.

In Re Lincoln National Corporation Stockholder Derivative Litigation, No. 2:24-cv-02713, is the matter name for the following two civil actions that were consolidated for all purposes on September 26, 2024, by the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania: Lawrence Hollin, derivatively on behalf of Nominal Defendant Lincoln National Corporation v. Ellen G. Cooper, Dennis R. Glass, Randal J. Freitag, Deirdre P Connelly, William H. Cunningham, Reginald E. Davis, Eric G. Johnson, Gary C. Kelly, M. Leanne Lachman, Dale LeFebvre, Janet Liang, Michael F. Mee, Lynn M. Utter and Patrick S. Pittard (“Individual Defendants”)and Lincoln National Corporation (“Nominal Defendant”), No. 2:24-cv-02713 (E.D. Pa.), filed on June 20, 2024; and Robert R. Wiersum, derivatively on behalf of Lincoln National Corporation v. Ellen G. Cooper, Dennis R. Glass, Randal J. Freitag, Deirdre P Connelly, William H. Cunningham, Reginald E. Davis, Eric G. Johnson, Gary C. Kelly, M. Leanne Lachman, Dale LeFebvre, Janet Liang, Michael F. Mee, Lynn M. Utter and Patrick S. Pittard(“Individual Defendants”)and Lincoln National Corporation (“Nominal Defendant”), No. 2:24-cv-03251 (E.D. Pa.), filed on July 23, 2024. By the same September 26, 2024, order, the court directed, among other things, that all proceedings and deadlines in this consolidated case be stayed until 30 days after resolution of all motions to dismiss (including the exhaustion of all related appeals) in the Meade matter discussed above. Plaintiffs bring this complaint for, inter alia, alleged breaches of fiduciary duties between November 4, 2020, at latest, through the date of filing and allege violations of the federal securities laws caused by the issuance of allegedly materially false and misleading statements issued, or caused to be issued, by the Individual Defendants in the Company’s SEC filings and other public statements. Plaintiffs allege that the Company thereby suffered loss, injury and damage. Among other relief, plaintiffs seek, in favor of the Company, damages sustained by the Company, punitive damages and attorney’s fees, an accounting for all damages to the Company and an unspecified order directing the Company to improve existing corporate governance and internal procedures. The Individual Defendants are vigorously defending these consolidated matters.

In Re Lincoln National Corporation Shareholder Derivative Litigation, No. CV-2024-0011319, is the matter name for the following two civil actions that were consolidated for all purposes on February 28, 2025, by the Court of Common Pleas of Delaware County, Pennsylvania: Anthony Morgan, derivatively on behalf of Nominal Defendant Lincoln National Corporation v. Ellen G. Cooper, Deirdre P. Connelly, William H. Cunningham, Reginald Davis, Eric C. [G.] Johnson, Gary C. Kelly, M. Leanne Lachman, Dale LeFebvre, Janet Liang, Lynn M. Utter, Dennis Glass and Randal Freitag (“Individual Defendants”)and Lincoln National Corporation (“Nominal Defendant”), No. CV-2024-011319 (Court of Common Pleas of Delaware County, Pennsylvania) filed on December 31, 2024; and Harry Rosenthal, derivatively on behalf of Nominal Defendant Lincoln National Corporation v. Ellen G. Cooper, Deirdre P Connelly, William H. Cunningham, Reginald Davis, Eric C. [G.] Johnson, Gary C. Kelly, M. Leanne Lachman, Dale LeFebvre, Janet Liang, Lynn M. Utter, Dennis Glass and Randal Freitag (“Individual Defendants”)and Lincoln National Corporation (“Nominal Defendant”), No. CV-2025-00146 (Court of Common Pleas of Delaware County, Pennsylvania) filed on January 3, 2025. By the same February 28, 2025, order, the court directed, among other things, that all proceedings and deadlines in this consolidated case be stayed until 30 days after resolution of all motions to dismiss (including the exhaustion of all related appeals) in the Meade matter discussed above. Plaintiffs bring this verified stockholder derivative complaint purportedly on behalf of Nominal Defendant

Lincoln National Corporation against the Individual Defendants, inter alia, for alleged breaches of fiduciary duties for allegedly failing to comply with federal securities laws, by the issuance of allegedly materially false and misleading statements in the Company’s SEC filings and other public statements. Plaintiffs allege claims against the Individual Defendants for breach of fiduciary duties and for unjust enrichment. Plaintiffs allege, inter alia, that the Individual Defendants failed to disclose to investors: (i) that the Company was experiencing a decline in its VUL business; (ii) that, as a result, the goodwill associated with the life insurance business was overstated; (iii) that, as a result, the Company’s policy lapse assumptions were outdated; (iv) that, as a result, the Company’s reserves were overstated; (v) that, as a result, the Company’s reported financial results and financial statements were misstated; and (vi) that, as a result, the Individual Defendants’ positive statements about the Company’s business, operations, and prospects were materially misleading and/or lacked a reasonable basis. Plaintiffs allege that the Company thereby suffered loss, injury and damage. Among other relief, the action seeks specifically, in favor of the Company: damages sustained by the Company; a direction by the court for the Company to take all necessary actions to reform and improve its corporate governance and internal procedures to comply with all applicable laws and to protect the Company and its shareholders; restitution from the Individual Defendants, and each of them, and an order for the disgorgement of all profits, benefits and other compensation obtained by the Individual Defendants; the costs and disbursements of the action, including reasonable attorneys’ fees, accountants’ and experts’ fees, costs and expenses; and such other and further relief as the court deems just and proper. The Individual Defendants are vigorously defending this matter.

Kelly Grink v. Virtua Health and Lincoln National Corporation et al., No. 1:24-cv-09919, is a putative class action filed on October 18, 2024, in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey. On March 7, 2025, Plaintiffs filed an amended complaint which, inter alia, added an additional named plaintiff (Steven Molnar) and additional named defendants, including Lincoln Retirement Services Company, LLC, and [The] Lincoln National Life Insurance Company. Plaintiffs Kelly Grink, Diane Trump and Steven Molnar are participants in Virtua Health’s defined contribution plans. Plaintiffs seek to represent all current and former participants or beneficiaries of Virtua’s 401(k) savings plan and 403(b) retirement program (together, the “Plans”) who invested in the Plans’ fixed annuity option in the six years prior to the filing of this lawsuit. Lincoln offers a fixed annuity investment option to plan participants through its group annuity contract with the Plans. Lincoln also provides recordkeeping and administration services to the Plans. Plaintiffs allege that the Virtua defendants acted in breach of their fiduciary duty including by maintaining the Plans’ investment in the Lincoln stable value fund when other investment providers are alleged to have provided superior alternatives at substantially lower cost. Plaintiffs allege that the Lincoln defendants were at all relevant times fiduciaries to the Plans and were parties in interest to a prohibited transaction under ERISA. The action seeks relief against the Lincoln defendants including the disgorgement of any profits they received as a result of the alleged breaches of fiduciary duty, together with plaintiffs’ attorney’s fees and costs, prejudgment and post-judgment interest and such other equitable or remedial relief as the court deems appropriate. On April 4, 2025, the Lincoln defendants filed a motion to dismiss. We are vigorously defending this matter.

Tax Assessment Proceeding

Lincoln National Life Insurance Company v. Township of Radnor, pending in the Court of Common Pleas of Delaware County, Pennsylvania Civil Division, No. 2022-001894, is a de novo appeal filed by LNL on March 21, 2022, regarding a September 30, 2021, Notice of Tax Assessment issued by the Township of Radnor to LNL for additional business privilege tax (“BPT”) for the years 2014-2019/2020 estimate. The assessment was based on an audit undertaken by a third-party auditor and consultant to the Township of Radnor, following a periodic business review of LNL undertaken by the same individual in 2018. The assessment is comprised of taxes, interest and penalties for the period in question. LNL filed a motion for summary judgment that was denied by the court. The trial of this matter was held in the fourth quarter of 2024. The court’s ruling remains pending. We are vigorously defending this matter.

Reinsurance Disputes

Certain reinsurers have in the past sought, and may in the future seek, rate increases on certain yearly renewable term agreements. We may initiate legal proceedings, as necessary, under these agreements in order to protect our contractual rights. Additionally, reinsurers have in the past initiated, and may in the future initiate, legal proceedings against us.

State Guaranty Fund Assessments

State guaranty associations levy assessments on insurance companies doing business within their jurisdictions to cover policyholder losses from insolvent or impaired insurance companies. Mandatory assessments may be partially recovered through a reduction in future premium taxes in some states. We accrue the cost of future guaranty fund assessments based on estimates of insurance company insolvencies provided by the National Organization of Life & Health Insurance Guaranty Associations and the amount of premiums written in each state. We reported the undiscounted expected state guaranty fund assessment liability within other liabilities on the Consolidated Balance Sheets of $63 million as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024. The actual amount of assessments levied against us in connection with insurance company insolvencies may vary from this estimate. Future guaranty fund assessments are expected to be paid based on anticipated funding periods for each guaranty association obligation. In addition, we reported the related receivable for expected future state premium tax recoveries within other assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheets of $100 million and $99 million as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, respectively. Premium tax recoveries are expected to be realized based on regulations set forth by the various state taxing authorities. The balance sheet position as of March 31, 2025, and December 31, 2024, nets to recoveries of $37 million and $36 million, respectively.

14. Shares and Stockholders’ Equity

Preferred Shares

Preferred stock authorized, issued and outstanding (number of shares) was as follows:

The per share and aggregate dividends declared for preferred stock by series (in millions except per share data) was as follows:

Common Shares

The changes in our common stock (number of shares) were as follows:

Our common stock is without par value.

Earnings Per Share

The calculation of earnings per share (“EPS”) was as follows (in millions except per share data):

(1)We have participants in our deferred compensation plans who selected LNC stock as the measure for the investment return attributable to all or a portion of their deferral amounts. This obligation is settled in either cash or LNC stock pursuant to the applicable plan document. We exclude deferred units of LNC stock that are antidilutive from our diluted EPS calculation.

(2)Due to reporting a net loss for the three months ended March 31, 2025, basic shares were used in the diluted EPS calculation for this period as the use of diluted shares would have resulted in a lower loss per share.

In the event the average market price of LNC common stock exceeds the issue price of stock options and the options have a dilutive effect to our EPS, such options will be shown in the table above.

AOCI

The following summarizes the components and changes in AOCI (in millions):

The following summarizes the reclassifications out of AOCI (in millions) and the associated line item on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss):

15. Segment Information

We provide products and services and report results through our Annuities, Life Insurance, Group Protection and Retirement Plan Services business segments. The accounting policies of the business segments and Other Operations are the same as those described in

Note 1 in our 2024 Form 10-K. We also have Other Operations, which includes the financial data for operations that are not directly related to the business segments. Our business segments and Other Operations reflect the manner by which our CODM views and manages the business. Our CODM is the Chief Executive Officer. A discussion of these segments and Other Operations is found in Note 19 in our 2024 Form 10-K.

Income (loss) from operations is the internal measure used by our CODM that explains the results of our ongoing operations in a manner that allows for a better understanding of the underlying trends by excluding items that are unpredictable and not necessarily indicative of current operating fundamentals or future performance, and, in many instances, decisions regarding these adjustments do not necessarily relate to the operations of the individual business segments. Income (loss) from operations is used by our CODM to evaluate financial performance, to assess the budgeting and forecasting process and to determine future resource allocation. In the third quarter of 2024, we revised our definition of income (loss) from operations to exclude the impact of certain additional items that are not indicative of the ongoing operations of the business and may obscure trends in the underlying performance of the Company. The presentation of prior period income (loss) from operations was recast for such third quarter 2024 revisions to conform to the current period presentation.

Income (loss) from operations is GAAP net income excluding the following items, as applicable:

•Items related to annuity product features, which include changes in MRBs, including gains and losses and benefit payments, changes in the fair value of the derivative instruments we hold to hedge GLB and GDB riders, net of fee income allocated to support the cost of hedging them, and changes in the fair value of the embedded derivative liabilities of our indexed annuity contracts and the associated index options we hold to hedge them, including collateral expense associated with the hedge program (collectively, “net annuity product features”);

•Items related to life insurance product features, which include changes in the fair value of derivatives we hold as part of VUL hedging, changes in reserves resulting from benefit ratio unlocking associated with the impact of capital markets, and changes in the fair value of the embedded derivative liabilities of our IUL contracts and the associated index options we hold to hedge them (collectively, “net life insurance product features”);

•Credit loss-related adjustments on fixed maturity AFS securities, mortgage loans on real estate and reinsurance-related assets (“credit loss-related adjustments”);

•Changes in the fair value of equity securities, certain derivatives, certain other investments and realized gains (losses) on sales, disposals and impairments of financial assets (collectively, “investment gains (losses)”);

•Changes in the fair value of reinsurance-related embedded derivatives, trading securities and mortgage loans on real estate electing the fair value option (“changes in the fair value of reinsurance-related embedded derivatives, trading securities and certain mortgage loans”);

•Income (loss) from the initial adoption of new accounting standards, accounting policy changes and new regulations, including changes in tax law;

•Income (loss) from reserve changes, net of related amortization, on business sold through reinsurance;

•Losses from the impairment of intangible assets and gains (losses) on other non-financial assets;

•Income (loss) from discontinued operations;

•Other items, which include the following: certain legal and regulatory accruals; severance expense related to initiatives that realign the workforce; transaction and integration costs related to mergers and acquisitions including the acquisition or divestiture, through reinsurance or other means, of businesses or blocks of business; mark-to-market adjustment related to the LNC stock component of our deferred compensation plans (“deferred compensation mark-to-market adjustment”); gains (losses) on modification or early extinguishment of debt; and impacts from settlement or curtailment of defined benefit obligations; and

•Income tax benefit (expense) related to the above pre-tax items, including the effect of tax adjustments such as changes to deferred tax valuation allowances.

We use our prevailing corporate federal income tax rate of 21% and an estimated state income tax rate, where applicable, net of the impacts related to dividends-received deduction and foreign tax credits and any other permanent differences for events recognized differently in the consolidated financial statements and federal income tax returns.

We do not report total assets by segment because this is not a metric used by the CODM to allocate resources or evaluate segment performance.

The tables below reconcile our internal measure of performance to the GAAP measure presented in the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) (in millions):

(1)See table below for reconciliation of total operating revenues to the GAAP measure presented in the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

(2)The significant expense categories and amounts align with the segment-level information that is regularly provided to the CODM. Inter-segment expenses are included within the amounts shown.

(3)Other operating expenses include: Annuities: DAC and VOBA capitalization and amortization; taxes, licenses and fees; expenses associated with reserve financing and letters of credit (“LOCs”) and amortization of deferred loss on business sold through reinsurance. Life Insurance: DAC and VOBA capitalization and amortization; taxes, licenses and fees; expenses associated with reserve financing and LOCs; amortization of deferred loss on business sold through reinsurance and other intangible amortization. Group Protection: Taxes, licenses and fees; DAC capitalization and amortization; other intangible amortization and expenses associated with LOCs. Retirement Plan Services: Taxes, licenses and fees; DAC capitalization and amortization and expenses associated with LOCs. Other Operations: DAC capitalization and amortization; taxes, licenses and fees and reimbursements to Other Operations from the Life Insurance segment for the use of proceeds from certain issuances of senior notes that were used as long-term structured solutions, net of expenses incurred by Other Operations for its access to a financing facility and issuance of LOCs.

(4)Includes primarily changes in the fair value of the embedded derivative related to the fourth quarter 2023 reinsurance transaction. For more information, see Note 7.

(5)Includes severance expense related to initiatives to realign the workforce of $(6) million.

(6)Includes transaction and integration costs related to mergers, acquisitions and divestitures of $(20) million.

(7)Includes deferred compensation mark-to-market adjustment of $(9) million.

(1)See table below for reconciliation of total operating revenues to the GAAP measure presented in the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss).

(2)The significant expense categories and amounts align with the segment-level information that is regularly provided to the CODM. Inter-segment expenses are included within the amounts shown.

(3)Other operating expenses include: Annuities: Broker-dealer expenses; DAC and VOBA capitalization and amortization; taxes, licenses and fees and expenses associated with reserve financing and LOCs. Life Insurance: DAC and VOBA capitalization and amortization; taxes, licenses and fees; expenses associated with reserve financing and LOCs and other intangible amortization. Group Protection: Taxes, licenses and fees; DAC capitalization and amortization; other intangible amortization and expenses associated with LOCs. Retirement Plan Services: DAC capitalization and amortization; taxes, licenses and fees and expenses associated with LOCs. Other Operations: Taxes, licenses and fees and reimbursements to Other Operations from the Life Insurance segment for the use of proceeds from certain issuances of senior notes that were used as long-term structured solutions, net of expenses incurred by Other Operations for its access to a financing facility and issuance of LOCs.

(4)The prior period presentation was recast to conform to the revised definition of income (loss) from operations.

(5)Includes primarily changes in the fair value of the embedded derivative related to the fourth quarter 2023 reinsurance transaction. For more information, see Note 7.

(6)Includes $(114) million primarily related to the settlement of cost of insurance litigation in the first quarter of 2024.

(7)Includes severance expense related to initiatives to realign the workforce of $(49) million.

(8)Includes transaction and integration costs related to mergers, acquisitions and divestitures of $(10) million.

(9)Includes deferred compensation mark-to-market adjustment of $(13) million.

The tables below reconcile our total operating revenues to the GAAP measure presented in the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) (in millions):

Other business segment and Other Operations information (in millions) was as follows:

16. Realized Gain (Loss)

Realized gain (loss) on the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss) includes realized gains and losses from the sale of investments, write-downs for impairments of investments and changes in the allowance for credit losses for financial assets, changes in fair value for mortgage loans on real estate accounted for under the fair value option, changes in fair value of equity securities, VUL derivative and embedded derivative gains and losses, gains and losses on the sale of subsidiaries and businesses and net gains and losses on reinsurance-related embedded derivatives and trading securities. Realized gains and losses on the sale of investments are determined using the specific identification method. Realized gain (loss) is also net of allocations of investment gains and losses to certain policyholders, certain funds withheld on reinsurance arrangements and certain modified coinsurance arrangements for which we have a contractual obligation. Details underlying realized gain (loss) (in millions) were as follows:

(1)Includes changes in the allowance for credit losses as well as direct write-downs to amortized cost as a result of negative credit events.

(2)Includes mark-to-market adjustments on equity securities still held of $(5) million and $11 million for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

(3)Represents changes in the fair values of derivatives we hold as part of VUL hedging, reinsurance-related embedded derivatives and trading securities.

(4)Includes gains and losses from fair value changes on mortgage loans on real estate accounted for under the fair value option of $(1) million and less than $1 million for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

(5)Represents the change in fair value of the index options that we hold and the change in the fair value of the embedded derivative liabilities of our indexed annuity and IUL contracts, and the associated index options to hedge policyholder index allocations applicable to future reset periods for our indexed annuity products.

(6)Includes the change in the fair value of the derivative instruments we own to support capital needs associated with our GLB and GDB riders net of fee income allocated to support the cost of purchasing the hedging instruments.

17. Federal Income Taxes

The effective tax rate is the ratio of tax expense (benefit) over pre-tax income (loss). The effective tax rate was 24%and 20%for the three months ended March 31, 2025 and 2024, respectively. The effective tax rate on pre-tax income is typically lower than the prevailing corporate federal income tax rate of 21% due to benefits from preferential tax items including the separate account dividends-received deduction and tax credits.

For the three months ended March 31, 2025, the effective tax rate differed from the prevailing corporate federal income tax rate dueprimarily to a tax benefit at 21% from pre-tax losses in addition to the effects of preferential tax items.

For the three months ended March 31, 2024, the effective tax rate differed from the prevailing corporate federal income tax rate due primarily to the effects of preferential tax items.