CINCINNATI FINANCIAL CORP

Consolidated financial results primarily reflect the results of our five reporting segments. These segments are defined based on financial information we use to evaluate performance and to determine the allocation of assets.

We report as Other the noninvestment operations of the parent company and its noninsurer subsidiary, CFC Investment Company. In addition, Other includes the financial results of our reinsurance assumed operations, known as Cincinnati Re®, and our London-based global specialty underwriter, known as Cincinnati Global Underwriting Ltd. SM (Cincinnati Global).

We measure profit or loss for our commercial lines, personal lines, excess and surplus lines and life insurance segments based upon underwriting results (profit or loss), which represent net earned premium less loss and loss expenses, or contract holders’ benefits incurred, and underwriting expenses on a pretax basis. We also evaluate results for our consolidated property casualty insurance operations. That is the total of our standard market segments (commercial lines and personal lines), our excess and surplus lines insurance segment, Cincinnati Re and Cincinnati Global. For analysis of our consolidated property casualty insurance results, it is important to include the earned premiums, loss and loss expenses and also underwriting expenses reported as Other. Underwriting results and segment pretax operating income are not substitutes for net income determined in accordance with GAAP.

For our consolidated property casualty insurance operations as well as the insurance segments, statutory accounting data and ratios are key performance indicators that we use to assess business trends and to make comparisons to industry results, since GAAP-based industry data generally is not as readily available.

Investments held by the parent company and the investment portfolios for the insurance subsidiaries are managed and reported as the investments segment, separate from our underwriting business. Net investment income and net investment gains and losses for our investment portfolios are discussed in Investments Results.

The calculations of segment data are described in more detail in Item 8, Note 18 of the Consolidated Financial Statements. The following sections provide analysis and discussion of results of operations for each of the five segments.

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Consolidated Property Casualty Insurance Results

Earned and net written premiums for our consolidated property casualty operations grew in 2025, reflecting average renewal price increases, a higher level of insured exposures and strategic initiatives for targeted growth. A key measure of property casualty profitability is underwriting profit or loss. Our 2025 underwriting profit of $501 million was $79 million less than in 2024, including a $249 million unfavorable effect from a higher amount of catastrophe losses, primarily from the January 2025 wildfires in southern California. Prior accident year loss experience before catastrophes during 2025 was $13 million less favorable than in 2024. When estimating the ultimate cost of total loss and loss expenses, we consider many factors, including trends for inflation, historical paid and reported losses, large loss activity and other data or information for the industry and our company. Higher losses and loss expenses, especially for liability lines of business, reflect increased uncertainty of estimated ultimate losses. Until longer-term paid loss cost trends or other inflation effects become more clear, we intend to remain prudent in reserving for estimated ultimate losses. We continue working to improve underwriting profitability, such as through higher pricing and our ongoing initiatives to improve pricing precision and loss experience related to claims and loss control practices. Underwriting profit trends are discussed further below.

The table below highlights property casualty results, with analysis and discussion in the sections that follow. That analysis and discussion includes sections by segment.

Performance highlights for consolidated property casualty operations include:

•Premiums – Agency renewal written premiums increased $943 million or 13% in 2025, compared with 2024, and continued to contribute to growth in earned premiums and net written premiums that rose in each of our property casualty insurance segments. The renewal premium increase was largely due to average renewal price

Cincinnati Financial Corporation - 2025 10-K - Page 58 increases and a higher level of insured exposures. Price increases with enhanced precision continue to benefit operating results.

New business written premiums produced through agencies decreased $67 million in 2025, compared with 2024. Agents appointed during 2025 or 2024 produced a 2025 increase in standard lines new business of $87 million. Growth initiatives also favorably affect growth in subsequent years, particularly as newer agency relationships mature over time.

Cincinnati Re produced $591 million of 2025 net written premiums, a $6 million decrease in other written premiums, compared with 2024. Cincinnati Re assumes risks through reinsurance treaties and in some cases cedes part of the risk and related premiums to one or more unaffiliated reinsurance companies through transactions known as retrocessions. The decrease included a $12 million net favorable effect from estimated premiums to reinstate treaties affected by the California wildfires. In 2025, earned premiums for Cincinnati Re totaled $582 million.

Net written premiums for Cincinnati Global were $334 million in 2025, an increase of $31 million in other written premiums, compared with 2024. In 2025, earned premiums for Cincinnati Global totaled $311 million.

Other written premiums also include premiums ceded to reinsurers as part of our ceded reinsurance program. An increase in ceded premiums, other than Cincinnati Re and Cincinnati Global premiums, reduced net written premium growth by $58 million in 2025. Other written premiums for 2025 included a net unfavorable amount of $52 million for reinsurance treaty reinstatement premiums related to the California wildfires, including a favorable $12 million for Cincinnati Re and an unfavorable $64 million for our personal lines insurance segment.

The table below analyzes premium revenue components and trends.

•Combined ratio – The combined ratio increased by 1.5 percentage points in 2025, compared with 2024, including a 1.6 percentage-point increase in the ratio for catastrophe losses. The 2025 ratio for current accident year losses and loss expenses before catastrophes increased by 0.2 percentage points. That ratio increase included an increase of 1.4 points for the IBNR portion and a decrease of 1.2 points for the case incurred portion. Price increases and other underwriting efforts have helped to manage effects of losses that include inflation effects. The remainder of the 2025 combined ratio increase included a decrease of 0.6 percentage points in the ratio for underwriting expenses, partially offset by 0.3 percentage points less benefit in the ratio for prior accident year losses and loss expenses before catastrophes. We further discuss ratios related to reserve development in the sections that follow the Catastrophe Losses Incurred table below.

Our statutory combined ratio was 94.7% in 2025 compared with 92.9% in 2024 and 94.6% in 2023. The estimated statutory combined ratio for the property casualty industry, with the industry’s ratio excluding its mortgage and financial guaranty lines of business and based on industry data reported through the first nine months of 2025, was 94.0% in 2025, 98.9% in 2024 and 101.9% in 2023. The contribution of catastrophe losses to our statutory combined ratio was 10.1 percentage points in 2025, 8.4 percentage points in 2024 and 8.8 percentage points in 2023, compared with industry estimates of 8.0, 7.7 and 8.5 percentage points, respectively, with 2025 representing industry data reported through the first nine months of 2025. Components of the combined ratio are discussed below.

Catastrophe loss trends are an important factor in assessing trends for overall underwriting results. Our 10-year historical annual average contribution of catastrophe losses to the combined ratio was 8.6 percentage points at December 31, 2025. Our five-year average was 9.0 percentage points.

Net losses from catastrophes for 2025 included recoveries from various reinsurers that participate in our reinsurance ceded treaties. The recovery related to the California wildfires based on loss estimates as of December 31, 2025, was $435 million, excluding reinsurance recoveries from Cincinnati Re.

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During 2025, there was no recovery from reinsurers for losses pertaining to the Cincinnati Re only reinsurance program effective June 1, 2025. For the program effective June 1, 2024, recoveries of $34 million were estimated for the 2025 California wildfires. See Item 7, Liquidity and Capital Resources, 2026 Reinsurance Ceded Programs, for a discussion of the Cincinnati Re only reinsurance program and other reinsurance coverage.

The following table shows catastrophe losses incurred for the past two calendar years, net of reinsurance, as well as the effect of loss development on prior period catastrophe reserves. We individually list declared catastrophe events for which our incurred losses reached or exceeded $25 million.

Catastrophe Losses Incurred

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Consolidated Property Casualty Insurance Loss and Loss Expenses

Loss and loss expenses include both net paid losses and reserve changes for unpaid losses as well as the associated loss expenses. For all property casualty lines of business in aggregate, net loss and loss expense reserves at December 31, 2025, were $1.344 billion higher than at year-end 2024, including $1.143 billion for incurred but not reported (IBNR) reserves. The $1.344 billion reserve increase raised year-end 2024 net loss and loss expense reserves by 14%, compared with a 13% increase in 2025 earned premiums.

Most of the incurred losses and loss expenses shown in the consolidated property casualty insurance results three-year highlights table are for the respective current accident years, with reserve development on prior accident years shown separately. Since less than half of our consolidated property casualty current accident year incurred losses and loss expenses represents net paid amounts, the majority represents reserves for our estimate of ultimate losses and loss expenses. These reserves develop over time, and we re-estimate previously reported reserves as we learn more about the development of the related claims. The table below illustrates that development. For example, the 66.2% accident year 2024 loss and loss expense ratio reported as of December 31, 2024, developed favorably by 3.2 percentage points to 63.0% due to claims settling for less than previously estimated, or due to updated reserve estimates for unpaid claims, as of December 31, 2025. Accident years 2024 and 2023 have both developed favorably, as indicated by the progression over time for the ratios in the table.

Catastrophe loss trends, discussed above, accounted for some of the movement in the current accident year loss and loss expense ratio for 2025, compared with 2024. Catastrophe losses added 10.8 percentage points in 2025, 9.6 points in 2024 and 9.3 points in 2023 to the respective consolidated property casualty current accident year loss and loss expense ratios in the table above.

The 56.8% ratio for current accident year loss and loss expenses before catastrophe losses for 2025 increased 0.2 percentage points compared with the 56.6% accident year 2024 ratio measured as of December 31, 2024. The increase included a 0.4 percentage-point increase in the ratio for current accident year losses of $2 million or more per claim, shown in the table below. It also included an unfavorable 0.3 points for the net effect of $52 million for reinsurance treaty reinstatement premiums related to the January 2025 wildfires in southern California.

Reserve development on prior accident years continued to net to a favorable amount in 2025, and was primarily due to less-than-anticipated loss emergence on known claims. We recognized $196 million of favorable development in 2025, compared with $236 million in 2024 and $215 million in 2023. Of the $40 million decrease in 2025, compared with 2024, $46 million was attributable to our commercial auto line of business. Approximately 97% of our net favorable reserve development on prior accident years recognized during 2025 occurred in our commercial property and workers' compensation lines of business. In 2024, our workers' compensation, commercial property and homeowner lines of business were responsible for approximately 89% of the favorable reserve development. As discussed in Liquidity and Capital Resources, Property Casualty Loss and Loss Expense Obligations and Reserves, Property Casualty Insurance Development of Estimated Reserves by Accident Year, commercial casualty and workers' compensation are considered long-tail lines with the potential for revisions inherent in estimating reserves. Favorable development recognized during 2023 was primarily from our workers’ compensation, commercial property and homeowner lines of business. Development by accident year is further discussed in Liquidity and Capital Resources, Property Casualty Insurance Development of Estimated Reserves by Accident Year.

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Consolidated Property Casualty Insurance Losses by Size

In 2025, total large losses incurred increased by $163 million, or 58%, net of reinsurance, largely due to an increase for our commercial lines insurance segment. The corresponding 2025 ratio increased 1.3 percentage points, compared with 2024. The large loss data in the table above does not include Cincinnati Re and Cincinnati Global. Our analysis of large losses incurred indicated no unexpected concentration of these losses and reserve increases by geographic region, policy inception, agency or field marketing territory. We believe the inherent volatility of aggregate loss experience for our portfolio of larger policies is greater than that of our portfolio of smaller policies, and we continue to monitor the volatility in addition to general inflationary trends in loss costs.

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Consolidated Property Casualty Insurance Underwriting Expenses

Consolidated property casualty commission expenses rose $240 million, or 15%, in 2025, with profit-sharing commissions for agencies increasing by $41 million. The 2025 ratio of commission expenses as a percent of earned premiums increased by 0.4 percentage points, compared with 2024. The ratio for 2024 decreased compared with 2023. In 2025, other underwriting expenses as a percent of earned premiums decreased by 1.0 percentage points, compared with 2024, as earned premiums rose faster than other underwriting expenses. The ratio improvement was primarily from a decrease in employee-related expenses. The 2025 ratio also included an unfavorable 0.2 points for the effect of reinstatement premiums. In 2024, other underwriting expenses as a percent of earned premiums matched 2023, as earned premiums kept pace with other underwriting expenses. The three-year period ending in 2025 also included ongoing expense management efforts.

Commission expenses include our profit-sharing commissions, which are primarily based on one-year and three-year profitability of an agency’s business. The aggregate profit trend for agencies that earn these profit-based commissions can differ from the aggregate profit trend for all agencies reflected in our consolidated property casualty results.

Salaries, benefits and payroll taxes for our associates account for approximately half of our property casualty other underwriting expenses. Most of our associates either provide direct service to the property casualty portion of our agencies’ businesses or provide support to those associates.

Discussions below of our property casualty insurance segments provide additional details about our results.

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Commercial Lines Insurance Results

Performance highlights for the commercial lines insurance segment include:

•Premiums – Earned premiums and net written premiums rose in 2025, including a $263 million, or 6%, increase in renewal written premiums that continued to include higher average pricing and a higher level of insured exposures. New business written premiums in 2025 increased $27 million, or 4%, compared with 2024, as we continued to carefully underwrite each policy in a highly competitive market.

•Combined ratio – The 2025 combined ratio improved by 2.1 percentage points compared with 2024, including a 1.9 percentage-point decrease in the ratio component for catastrophe losses. The 2025 combined ratio improvement was partially offset by 0.6 points from a higher ratio for current accident year loss and loss expenses before catastrophe losses, compared with 2024. That ratio increase included an increase of 1.9 points for the IBNR portion and a decrease of 1.3 points for the case incurred portion. Price increases and other underwriting actions have helped to manage effects of losses that include inflation effects. Development on prior accident years loss and loss expense reserves before catastrophes during 2025 was 0.1 percentage points less favorable than in 2024, as discussed below.

Pricing precision and other initiatives to improve commercial lines underwriting profitability complement our business practices that continue to leverage the local presence of our field associates. Field marketing representatives meet with local agencies to assess each risk, determine limits of insurance and establish appropriate terms and conditions. They underwrite new business, with collaboration and expertise from headquarters associates as needed, while field loss control, machinery and equipment and claims representatives conduct on-site inspections. Field claims representatives also assist underwriters by preparing full reports on their first-hand observations of risk quality.

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Our commercial lines statutory combined ratio was 90.3% in 2025, compared with 92.2% in 2024 and 95.6% in 2023. The contribution of catastrophe losses to our commercial lines statutory combined ratio was 3.5 percentage points in 2025, 5.4 percentage points in 2024 and 7.2 percentage points in 2023.

Commercial Lines Insurance Premiums

We continue to refine our use of predictive analytics tools to improve pricing precision as we further segment commercial lines policies, emphasizing identification and retention of policies we believe have relatively stronger price adequacy. These tools better align individual insurance policy pricing to risk attributes, providing our underwriters with enhanced abilities to target profitability and to discuss pricing impacts with our agencies. We also continue to leverage our local relationships with agents through the efforts of our teams that work closely with them. We believe our field focus is unique and has several advantages, including providing us with quality intelligence on local market conditions. We seek to maintain appropriate pricing discipline for both new and renewal business as management continues to emphasize the importance of our agencies and underwriters assessing account quality to make careful decisions on a case-by-case basis whether to write new business or renew a policy. Premium rate credits may be used to retain renewals of quality business and to earn new business, but we do so selectively in order to avoid commercial accounts that we believe have insufficient profit margins.

Our 6% increase in 2025 agency renewal written premiums included higher average pricing. We measure average changes in commercial lines renewal pricing as the rate of change in renewal premium for the new policy period compared with the premium for the expiring policy period, assuming no change in the level of insured exposures or policy coverage between those periods for respective policies. In 2025, our standard commercial lines policies averaged an estimated pricing change at a percentage in the mid-single-digit range. Our average commercial lines pricing change includes the flat pricing effect of certain coverages within package policies written for a three-year term that were in force but did not expire during the period being measured. Therefore, the average commercial lines pricing change we report reflects a blend of policies that did not expire and other policies that did expire during the measurement period.

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For only those commercial lines policies that did expire and were then renewed during 2025, we estimate that the average price increase was at a percentage near the high end of the mid-single-digit range. During 2025, we continued to further segment our commercial lines policies, emphasizing identification and retention of policies we believed had relatively stronger price adequacy. Conversely, we continued to seek more aggressive renewal terms and conditions on policies we believed had relatively weaker pricing, in turn retaining fewer of those policies.

Our 2025 increase of 6% for the commercial lines segment's agency renewal written premiums also included a higher level of insured exposures, in addition to other factors such as changes in policy retention rates or changes in mix of business that can cause variations in average premiums per policy. Part of the insured exposure increase reflects our response to inflation effects that increase the cost of building materials to repair damaged commercial structures. We use building valuation software to automate much of that underwriting process and may also manually adjust premiums to reflect property costs.

Changes in the economy can affect insured exposures that directly relate to premium amounts charged for some policies. For commercial accounts, we usually calculate initial estimates for general liability premiums based on estimated sales or payroll volume, while we calculate workers’ compensation premiums based on estimated payroll volume. A change in sales or payroll volume generally indicates a change in demand for a business’s goods or services, as well as a change in its exposure to risk. Policyholders who experience sales or payroll volume changes due to economic factors may also have other exposures requiring insurance, such as commercial auto or commercial property. Premium levels for these other types of coverages generally are not linked directly to sales or payroll volumes.

Premiums resulting from audits of actual sales or payrolls that confirmed or adjusted initial premium estimates are part of net written premiums and earned premiums. They also contribute to increases or decreases in our agency renewal written premiums. The contribution to our commercial lines earned premiums was $92 million, $107 million and $157 million in 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively. The contribution on a net written premium basis was $92 million, $108 million and $136 million in 2025, 2024 and 2023, respectively. These net written premium amounts are included with agency renewal written premiums in the Commercial Lines Insurance Premiums table above.

In 2025, our commercial lines new business premiums written by our agencies increased $27 million, or 4%, compared with 2024, as we continued to carefully underwrite each policy in a highly competitive market. New business premium volume in recent years has been significantly influenced by new agency appointments. Agencies appointed since the beginning of 2024 produced commercial lines new business written premiums of $80 million, in aggregate, during 2025, up $58 million from what they produced during 2024. All other agencies contributed the remaining $688 million, down $31 million from the $719 million they produced in 2024.

For new business, our field associates are frequently meeting with our agents to: help judge the quality of each account; emphasize the Cincinnati value proposition; call on sales prospects with those agents; and provide appropriate quotes after carefully evaluating risk exposures. Some of our new business comes from accounts that are not new to the agent. We believe these seasoned accounts tend to be priced more accurately than business that is new to us and the agency. As we appoint new agencies who choose to move accounts to us, we report these accounts as new business to us.

Other written premiums primarily consist of premiums that are ceded to reinsurers and lower our net written premiums. A decrease in ceded premiums increased net written premium growth by $17 million in 2025.

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Commercial Lines Insurance Loss and Loss Expenses

Loss and loss expenses include both net paid losses and reserve changes for unpaid losses as well as the associated loss expenses. Most of the incurred losses and loss expenses shown in the commercial lines insurance segment three-year highlights table are for the respective current accident years, with reserve development on prior accident years shown separately. Since less than half of our commercial lines insurance segment current accident year incurred losses and loss expenses represents net paid amounts, the majority represents reserves for our estimate of ultimate losses and loss expenses. These reserves develop over time, and we re-estimate previously reported reserves as we learn more about development on the related claims. The table below illustrates that development. For example, the 65.4% accident year 2024 loss and loss expense ratio reported as of December 31, 2024, developed favorably by 3.5 percentage points to 61.9% due to claims settling for less than previously estimated, or due to updates to reserve estimates for unpaid claims, as of December 31, 2025. Accident years 2024 and 2023 for the commercial lines insurance segment have both developed favorably, as indicated by the progression over time of the ratios in the table.

Catastrophe losses, as discussed in Consolidated Property Casualty Insurance Results, explain some of the movement in the current accident year loss and loss expense ratio for accident year 2025, compared with 2024. Catastrophe losses added 3.9 percentage points in 2025, 6.1 points in 2024 and 7.4 points in 2023 to the respective commercial lines current accident year loss and loss expense ratios in the table above.

The 59.9% ratio for current accident year loss and loss expenses before catastrophe losses for 2025 increased 0.6 percentage points compared with the 59.3% accident year 2024 ratio measured as of December 31, 2024. The change included an increase in large losses incurred, described below including a table with corresponding ratios for new losses above $2 million, with a 0.6 percentage-point increase in the 2025 ratio. Contributions to the ratio increase included inflation effects that were partially offset by favorable impacts from various initiatives, such as those to improve pricing precision, risk selection and loss experience related to claims and loss control practices.

Commercial lines reserve development on prior accident years of $130 million in 2025 continued to net to a favorable amount and provided a smaller benefit than the $138 million recognized in 2024. The $8 million net decrease in 2025, compared with 2024, included $46 million from our commercial auto line of business and $18 million from our workers' compensation line of business, partially offset by a $52 million increase from our commercial property line of business. Most of our commercial lines net favorable reserve development on prior accident years recognized during 2025 occurred in our commercial property and workers’ compensation lines of business. Net unfavorable reserve development on prior accident years of $41 million for commercial auto and $21 million for commercial casualty was recognized during 2025. Favorable development recognized during 2024 and 2023 was also mostly from our workers’ compensation and commercial property lines of business. As discussed in Critical Accounting Estimates, Property Casualty Insurance Loss and Loss Expense Reserves, stable paid and reported loss patterns are a key assumption used to make projections necessary for estimating IBNR reserves. Development by accident year and other trends for commercial lines loss and loss expenses and the related ratios are further discussed in Liquidity and Capital Resources, Property Casualty Insurance Development of Estimated Reserves by Accident Year.

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Commercial Lines Insurance Losses by Size

In 2025, total large losses incurred increased by $102 million, or 53%, net of reinsurance. The corresponding 2025 ratio increased 1.8 percentage points, compared with 2024. The 2025 increase on a dollar basis was primarily due to an increase of $66 million for our commercial property line of business and $46 million for our commercial casualty line of business. The commercial casualty increase included $49 million from prior accident years. In 2024, total large losses incurred and the corresponding ratio were lower than in 2023, largely due to lower amounts of large losses for our commercial property line of business. Our analysis indicated no unexpected concentration of these losses and reserve increases by geographic region, policy inception, agency or field marketing territory. We believe the inherent volatility of aggregate loss experience for our portfolio of larger policies is greater than that of our portfolio of smaller policies, and we continue to monitor the volatility in addition to general inflationary trends in loss costs.

Commercial Lines Insurance Underwriting Expenses

Commercial lines commission expenses as a percent of earned premiums increased slightly in 2025, compared with 2024, reflecting an increase in the ratio for profit-sharing commissions for agencies. The ratio for 2024 decreased slightly compared with 2023. In 2025, other underwriting expenses as a percent of earned premiums decreased, compared with 2024, as other underwriting expenses decreased, primarily from employee-related expenses. In 2024, other underwriting expenses as a percent of earned premiums increased, compared with 2023, as earned

Cincinnati Financial Corporation - 2025 10-K - Page 68 premiums rose at a slower pace than other underwriting expenses. The three-year period ending in 2025 also included ongoing expense management efforts.

Commercial Lines Insurance Outlook

Managing our commercial lines insurance segment includes efforts to address challenges in the commercial lines market of the U.S. property casualty industry. Competitive pressure is increasing and we continue to respond with enhanced pricing analytics and careful risk selection. We are committed to our agencies and focus on a long-term strategy when considering how to successfully navigate market pressures and changing conditions while profitably growing this segment.

We intend to grow through additional agency appointments, expansion of our local field presence, enhancing underwriting expertise and cross-selling or product expansion that meets the needs of an even larger percentage of our agencies' total commercial portfolio. Our goal is to provide flexibility in our process so that we can deliver an industry-leading agency experience to all of our agents as we work to be the first and last solution when they are considering business placement.

We intend to keep marketing our products to a broad range of business classes with a total account approach, while also continuing to diversify our book of business. Work continues to improve our pricing precision that enhances our segmentation of commercial risks, as underwriters emphasize underwriting discipline and careful management of rate levels. They seek to accurately assess risk by matching exposures and terms and conditions with appropriate premiums, evaluating each account on its individual characteristics. We believe that our initiatives to continually improve pricing precision and underwriting decision processes to manage loss cost effects will continue to benefit commercial lines profitability during 2026.

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Personal Lines Insurance Results

Performance highlights for the personal lines insurance segment include:

•Premiums – Earned premiums and net written premiums continued to grow in 2025, due to increases in renewal written premiums that included higher average pricing and a higher level of insured exposures. Renewal written premiums rose $633 million, or 25%, in 2025, compared with 2024, while new business written premiums decreased $128 million, or 21%. Net written premiums included excess and surplus lines homeowner policies with premiums totaling $129 million in 2025 and $166 million in 2024.

•Combined ratio – The 2025 combined ratio increased by 6.1 percentage points, compared with 2024, including an increase of 7.1 points in the ratio for catastrophe losses. The combined ratio increase was partially offset by 0.3 points from a lower ratio for current accident year loss and loss expenses before catastrophe losses. That ratio decrease included an increase of 2.1 points for the IBNR portion and a decrease of 2.4 points for the case incurred portion. Price increases and other underwriting efforts have helped to manage effects of losses that include inflation effects. The combined ratio increase also included an increase of 0.3 points from reserve development on prior accident year loss and loss expenses before catastrophes during 2025 that was unfavorable by 1.0 points compared with 0.7 points in 2024.

We have increased our pricing precision and implemented numerous rate increases in recent years to improve our personal lines insurance segment results. In addition, we have made greater use of higher minimum loss deductibles and enhanced our property inspection processes to verify condition and insurance to value. We have worked to improve our geographic diversification by expanding our personal lines operation to additional states as the type of catastrophe risk can vary by state.

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Our personal lines statutory combined ratio was 102.8% in 2025, compared with 95.5% in 2024 and 98.3% in 2023. The contribution of catastrophe losses to our personal lines statutory combined ratio was 21.0 percentage points in 2025, 13.9 percentage points in 2024 and 15.1 percentage points in 2023.

Personal Lines Insurance Premiums

Personal lines insurance is a strategic component of our overall relationship with most of our agencies and is an important component of our agencies’ relationships with their clients. We believe agents recommend our personal insurance products to their clients who seek to balance quality and price and who are attracted by our superior claims service and the benefits of our package approach. We also believe our continuing efforts to improve pricing precision are helping us attract and retain more of our agencies’ preferred business, while also obtaining higher rates for more thinly priced business.

The 25% increase in agency renewal written premiums in 2025 included the effect of various rate changes. We estimate that premium rates for our personal auto line of business increased at an average percentage in the high-single-digit range during 2025, with some individual policies experiencing lower or higher rate changes based on enhanced pricing precision enabled by predictive models that consider characteristics of specific risks. For our homeowner line of business, we estimate that price increases during 2025 averaged a percentage in the low-double-digit range. Similar to our personal auto line of business, that average varied widely by state, and some individual policies experienced lower or higher rate changes based on pricing precision and current rate level indications that helped determine appropriate premium rates.

The increase in agency renewal written premiums in 2025 also included a higher level of insured exposures and other factors such as changes in policy deductibles or mix of business. Part of the insured exposure increase reflects our response to inflation effects that increase the cost of building materials to repair damaged homes.

Personal lines new business written premiums decreased by $128 million, or 21%, during 2025, compared with 2024. We believe we maintained underwriting and pricing discipline across all personal lines markets as we expanded use of enhanced pricing precision tools. Some of what we report as new business came from accounts that were not new to our agents. We believe our agents’ seasoned accounts tend to be priced more accurately than business that may be less familiar to them.

Other written premiums primarily consist of premiums that are ceded to reinsurers and lower our net written premiums. An increase in ceded premiums reduced net written premium growth by $75 million in 2025. Ceded premiums for 2025 included $64 million for reinsurance reinstatement premiums related to the January 2025 wildfires in southern California. The $64 million of reinstatement premiums included $61 million for our homeowners line of business.

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Personal Lines Insurance Loss and Loss Expenses

Loss and loss expenses include both net paid losses and reserve changes for unpaid losses as well as the associated loss expenses. Most of the incurred losses and loss expenses shown in the personal lines insurance segment three-year highlights table are for the respective current accident years, with reserve development on prior accident years shown separately. Since approximately two-thirds of our personal lines current accident year incurred losses and loss expenses represent net paid amounts, the remaining one-third represents reserves for our estimate of ultimate losses and loss expenses. These reserves develop over time, and we re-estimate previously reported reserves as we learn more about the development on the related claims. The table below illustrates that development. For example, the 69.5% accident year 2024 loss and loss expense ratio reported as of December 31, 2024, developed favorably by 1.8 percentage points to 67.7% due to claims settling for less than previously estimated, or due to updated reserve estimates for unpaid claims, as of December 31, 2025. Accident year 2023 for the personal lines segment developed favorably for the two-year period ending December 31, 2025, as indicated by the progression over time for the ratios in the table. It experienced unfavorable development during 2025, driven by the other personal line of business, and favorable development during 2024.

Catastrophe losses, as discussed in Consolidated Property Casualty Insurance Results, explain some of the movement in the current accident year loss and loss expense ratio for accident year 2025, compared with accident year 2024. Catastrophe losses added 22.2 percentage points in 2025, 15.6 points in 2024 and 17.3 points in 2023 to the respective personal lines current accident year loss and loss expense ratios in the table above. Personal lines catastrophe losses for 2025 resulted in a ratio higher than our 12.1% 10-year annual average for personal lines. Personal lines catastrophe losses are inherently volatile, as discussed above and in Consolidated Property Casualty Insurance Results.

The 53.6% ratio for current accident year loss and loss expenses before catastrophe losses for 2025 improved 0.3 percentage points compared with the 53.9% accident year 2024 ratio measured as of December 31, 2024. The decrease was partially offset by an increase in the ratios for new losses above $2 million, with a 0.5 percentage-point increase in the 2025 ratio. The 2025 ratio also included an unfavorable 1.1 points for the effect of reinstatement premiums. Other contributions included inflation effects that were offset by the favorable impact from various initiatives, such as those to improve pricing precision, risk selection and loss experience related to claims and loss control practices.

Personal lines loss and loss expense reserve development on prior accident years recognized in 2025 was favorable by $4 million, in aggregate, compared with $26 million in 2024. The 2025 net favorable reserve development included $49 million for our homeowner line of business partially offset by $36 million of unfavorable development for our other personal line of business, primarily from personal umbrella claims. The 2024 net favorable reserve development included $54 million for our homeowner line of business and an unfavorable $20 million for our personal auto line of business. As discussed in Critical Accounting Estimates, Property Casualty Insurance Loss and Loss Expense Reserves, stable paid and reported loss patterns are a key assumption used to make projections necessary for estimating IBNR reserves. Development by accident year and other trends for personal lines loss and loss expenses and the related ratios are further discussed in Liquidity and Capital Resources, Property Casualty Insurance Development of Estimated Reserves by Accident Year.

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Personal Lines Insurance Losses by Size

In 2025, personal lines total large losses incurred increased by $63 million, or 76%, net of reinsurance. The corresponding 2025 ratio increased 1.3 percentage points, compared with 2024. The 2025 increase was primarily due to a higher amount for our homeowner line of business. The large loss prior accident year reserve development of $30 million for 2025 was primarily due to personal umbrella and homeowner claims. In 2024, total large losses decreased, compared with 2023, primarily due to lower amounts for our homeowner line of business. Our analysis indicated no unexpected concentration of these losses and reserve increases by risk category, geographic region, policy inception, agency or field marketing territory. We believe the inherent volatility of aggregate loss experience for our portfolio of larger policies is greater than that of our portfolio of smaller policies, and we continue to monitor the volatility in addition to general inflationary trends in loss costs.

Personal Lines Insurance Underwriting Expenses

Personal lines commission expense as a percent of earned premiums increased slightly in 2025 compared with 2024, reflecting an increase in the ratio for profit-sharing commissions for agencies. The ratio for 2024 decreased slightly compared with 2023, as earned premiums rose at a faster pace than commission expenses. Other underwriting expenses as a percent of earned premiums in 2025 decreased, compared with 2024, reflecting ongoing expense management efforts, as premium growth outpaced growth in other underwriting expenses. The 2025 ratio also included an unfavorable 0.5 points for the effect of reinstatement premiums. In 2024, other underwriting expenses as a percent of earned premiums decreased, compared with the 2023 percentage, reflecting ongoing expense management efforts, as the pace of premium growth outpaced growth in other expenses.

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Personal Lines Insurance Outlook

The personal lines market of the U.S. property casualty industry experienced softening market conditions and increased competition, particularly in the personal auto line, during 2025, which will pressure premium growth into 2026. We believe we can continue to profitably grow premiums in our personal lines insurance segment through continued pricing precision of individual risks, new agency appointments and an ongoing focus on diversification of product and geography. We serve middle market, mass affluent and high net worth clients, helping us grow across the U.S. and spreading our catastrophe risk. Drivers of profitable growth for our Cincinnati Private Client business also include selectively using non-admitted insurance property forms and rates in certain catastrophe-prone states and geographies.

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Excess and Surplus Lines Insurance Results

Our excess and surplus lines insurance segment includes results of The Cincinnati Specialty Underwriters Insurance Company and CSU Producer Resources Inc. Performance highlights for this segment include:

•Premiums – Earned premiums and net written premiums continued to grow during 2025, primarily due to higher renewal written premiums that included average renewal estimated price increases in the high-single-digit range. New business written premiums rose 17% in 2025, compared with 2024, and also contributed to premium growth.

•Combined ratio – The combined ratio improved by 5.6 percentage points in 2025, compared with 2024, primarily due to favorable reserve development on prior accident year loss and loss expenses and a lower ratio for current accident year loss and loss expenses before catastrophe losses. Approximately 89% of our 2025 earned premiums for the excess and surplus lines insurance segment provided commercial casualty coverages for various insured liability claims. The lower 2025 combined ratio also included a decrease in the ratio for catastrophe losses and an increase in the ratio for underwriting expenses.

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Excess and Surplus Lines Insurance Premiums

The $47 million increase in 2025 renewal premiums largely reflected higher renewal pricing. Average renewal estimated price increases were in the high-single-digit range during 2025. We measure average changes in excess and surplus lines renewal pricing as the rate of change in renewal premium for the new policy period compared with the premium for the expiring policy period, assuming no change in the level of insured exposures or policy coverage between those periods for respective policies.

New business written premiums in 2025 grew by $34 million, or 17%, compared with 2024, as we continued to carefully underwrite each policy in a highly competitive market. Other written premiums in 2025 reduced net written premium growth by $6 million more than in 2024 and are primarily premiums that are ceded to reinsurers.

Excess and Surplus Lines Loss and Loss Expenses

Loss and loss expenses include both net paid losses and reserve changes for unpaid losses, as well as the associated loss expenses. The majority of the total incurred losses and loss expenses shown above in the three-year highlights table are for the respective current accident years, with reserve development on prior accident years shown separately. Since less than 20% of our excess and surplus lines current accident year incurred losses and loss expenses represents net paid amounts, a large majority represents reserves for our estimate of unpaid losses and loss expenses. These reserves develop over time, and we update our estimates of previously reported reserves as we learn more about the development on the related claims. The table below illustrates that development. For example, the 65.5% accident year 2024 loss and loss expense ratio reported as of December 31, 2024, developed favorably by 4.9 percentage points to 60.6% due to claims settling for less than previously estimated, or due to updated reserve estimates for unpaid claims, as of December 31, 2025. Accident year 2023 for the segment developed favorably for the two-year period ending December 31, 2025, as indicated by the progression over time for the ratios in the table. It experienced a small amount of unfavorable development during 2025 and favorable development during 2024.

Catastrophe losses, as discussed in Consolidated Property Casualty Insurance Results, explain some of the movement among components of the current accident year loss and loss expense ratio for accident year 2025, compared with 2024. Catastrophe losses added 0.5 percentage points in 2025, 1.3 points in 2024 and 0.7 points in 2023 to the respective excess and surplus lines current accident year loss and loss expense ratios in the table above.

The 63.1% ratio for current accident year loss and loss expenses before catastrophe losses for 2025 improved by 1.1 percentage points compared with the 64.2% accident year 2024 ratio measured as of December 31, 2024. The decrease included a 0.4 percentage-point decrease in the ratio for current accident year losses of $2 million or more per claim, shown in the table below.

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Excess and surplus lines reserve development on prior accident years was a net favorable $19 million for 2025 and a net unfavorable $8 million for 2024. The net favorable amount for 2025 was primarily for accident year 2024 and was due primarily to lower-than-anticipated loss emergence on known claims.

We believe the loss and loss expense reserves for our excess and surplus lines business are adequate. The amount of outstanding reserves for our excess and surplus lines operation can be seen in a table in Liquidity and Capital Resources, Property Casualty Loss and Loss Expense Obligations and Reserves. One indication of how long it takes for most of the outstanding reserves to be settled is to measure outstanding reserves by accident year at different points in time, using Item 8, Note 4 of the Consolidated Financial Statements. For example, for accident years 2018, 2017 and 2016, in aggregate, after subtracting cumulative paid amounts from incurred amounts at December 31, 2018, reserves for estimated unpaid losses, plus the portion of loss expenses known as ALAE, equaled $222 million. For those same accident years, at December 31, 2025, the reserve estimate for the remaining unpaid amount equaled $17 million. As discussed in Critical Accounting Estimates, Property Casualty Insurance Loss and Loss Expense Reserves, stable paid and reported loss patterns are a key assumption used to make projections necessary for estimating IBNR reserves. The inherent uncertainty in estimating reserves is discussed in Liquidity and Capital Resources, Property Casualty Insurance Loss and Loss Expense Obligations and Reserves. Development trends by accident year are further discussed in Property Casualty Insurance Development of Estimated Reserves by Accident Year.

Excess and Surplus Lines Insurance Losses by Size

In 2025, total large losses decreased by $2 million, net of reinsurance. The ratio for 2025 large losses as a percent of earned premiums decreased by 0.4 percentage points, compared with 2024. That ratio for 2024 increased by 1.0 points, compared with 2023. Our analysis indicated no unexpected concentration of these losses and reserve increases by risk category, geographic region, policy inception, agency or field marketing territory. We believe the inherent volatility of aggregate loss experience for our portfolio of larger policies is greater than that of our portfolio of smaller policies, and we continue to monitor the volatility in addition to general inflationary trends in loss costs.

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Excess and Surplus Lines Insurance Underwriting Expenses

Excess and surplus lines commission expense as a percent of earned premiums for 2025 increased compared with 2024, in part due to an increase in the ratio for business factored in for agency profit-sharing agreements with The Cincinnati Insurance Companies. The ratio for 2024 increased compared with 2023, primarily from an increase in the ratio for profit-sharing commissions for agencies. The ratio for other underwriting expenses in 2025 matched the ratio in 2024. The ratio for other underwriting expenses increased slightly in 2024. The three-year period ending in 2025 also reflected ongoing expense management efforts and changes in the pace of premium growth.

Excess and Surplus Lines Insurance Outlook

Strong premium growth continues in both general liability and excess casualty across the excess and surplus lines industry, but net rates remain under pressure. Similar to casualty, large-account property business is softer than small business. We expect to maintain rate increases as we continue to manage competitive markets and challenges such as third-party litigation funding, nuclear verdicts and aggressive plaintiff bar tactics.

Technology remains a key driver of efficiency and data transparency. Our implementation of technology enhancements should continue to decrease data entry time and improve the quality of our analytics, positioning us to realize sustained benefits going forward.

We continue to execute our strategy of delivering superior service and disciplined underwriting across our excess and surplus lines insurance segment. Despite ongoing market challenges, we expect the segment to contribute to profitable growth through careful risk selection and pricing. Our mix of field-based and headquarters-based underwriters and claims managers provides specialized excess and surplus lines expertise, offering additional oversight and technical support and helping to ensure consistent underwriting, claims and loss control practices across the organization.

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Life Insurance Results

Performance highlights for the life insurance segment include:

•Revenues – Earned premiums increased 3% for the year 2025, as shown in the table below that includes details by major line of business. Our largest life insurance product line, term life insurance, also rose 3%. Net in-force policy face amounts rose 4% to $87.311 billion at year-end 2025 from $84.245 billion at year-end 2024 and $82.361 billion at year-end 2023.

•Profitability – Our life insurance segment typically reports a smaller profit compared with the life insurance subsidiary because profits from investment income spreads are included in our investments segment results. We include only investment income credited to contract holders (including interest assumed in life insurance policy reserve calculations) in life insurance segment results. A profit of $65 million for our life insurance segment in 2025, compared with $57 million in 2024, was primarily due to increased earned premiums and more favorable mortality experience. A profit of $57 million in 2024 compared with $41 million in 2023 was primarily due to more favorable unlocking of interest rate and other actuarial adjustments and more favorable mortality experience.

Earned premiums increased $9 million in 2025, primarily due to a $7 million increase in term life insurance earned premiums, as shown in the table below.

Products we market include term, whole and universal life insurance and also fixed annuities. In addition, we offer term and whole life insurance to employees at their worksite. These products provide our property casualty agency force with excellent cross-serving opportunities for both commercial and personal accounts.

Over the past several years, we have worked to maintain a portfolio of simple, yet competitive, products. Our product development efforts emphasize death benefit protection and guarantees. Distribution expansion within our property casualty insurance agencies remains a high priority. Our 39 life field marketing representatives work in partnership with our property casualty field marketing representatives. Approximately 62% of our term and other life insurance product premiums were generated through our property casualty insurance agency relationships.

Life insurance segment expenses consist principally of:

•Contract holders’ benefits incurred, related to traditional life and interest-sensitive products, accounted for 76.6% of 2025 total benefits and expenses (inclusive of investment interest credited to contract holders) compared with 76.4% in 2024 and 78.4% in 2023. Total contract holders’ benefits increased in 2025, compared with 2024, largely due to continued growth of in-force policy face amounts and less favorable impacts from the unlocking of interest rate and other actuarial assumptions, partially offset by more favorable mortality experience.

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Total contract holder benefits decreased in 2024, compared with 2023, largely due to more favorable impacts from the unlocking of interest rate and other actuarial assumptions. Mortality experience was more favorable in 2025, compared with 2024, and net death claims were below our mortality projections.

•Underwriting expenses incurred, net of deferred acquisition costs, accounted for 23.4% of 2025 total benefits and expenses (inclusive of investment interest credited to contract holders) compared with 23.6% in 2024 and 21.6% in 2023. Expenses in 2025 decreased by less than 1%, compared with 3% growth in earned premiums. Expenses in 2024 increased 7%, compared with 3% growth in earned premiums. The 2025 decrease in underwriting expenses was largely due to lower general insurance expense levels. The 2024 increase in underwriting expenses was largely due to higher general insurance expense levels and increased amortization of deferred policy acquisition costs.

Life insurance segment profitability depends largely on premium levels, the adequacy of product pricing, underwriting skill and operating efficiencies. This segment’s results include only investment interest credited to contract holders (interest assumed in life insurance policy reserve calculations). The remaining investment income is reported in the investments segment results. The life investment portfolio is managed to earn target spreads between earned investment rates on general account assets and rates credited to policyholders. We consider the value of assets under management and investment income for the life investment portfolio as key performance indicators for the life insurance segment. We seek to maintain a competitive advantage with respect to benefits paid and reserve increases by consistently achieving better than average claims experience due to skilled underwriting.

We recognize that assets under management, capital appreciation and investment income are integral to evaluation of the success of the life insurance segment because of the long duration of life products. On a basis that includes investment income and investment gains or losses from life insurance-related invested assets, our life insurance subsidiary reported net income of $106 million in 2025, compared with $91 million in 2024 and $75 million in 2023. The life insurance subsidiary portfolio had after-tax net investment losses of $5 million in 2025 compared with $6 million in 2024 and $7 million in 2023. Investment gains and losses are discussed under Investments Results. We exclude most of our life insurance company investment income from investments segment results.

Life Insurance Outlook

We believe the life insurance market remains attractive from both a macro view and as a valuable complement to our property casualty operation. Life insurance ownership remains low compared to historical levels and research continues to show that people prefer to buy their life insurance from a professional agent. Our strong agency relationships and expanding base of agencies give us a competitive edge in marketing our life products.

We have developed the practice of reviewing and adopting new technology into our business, with an eye on continuous improvement of our operations. We also continue to shorten the time it takes to underwrite new business, helping to remove one of the main hurdles that discourage property casualty agents from offering life products. Our overarching strategy with technology is to enhance our associates’ ability to serve our agents and customers by allowing them to focus on solving problems rather than simply processing transactions.

Within the life insurance market, we continue to view the voluntary life space as particularly attractive. With our large commercial lines presence, our agencies have tremendous opportunities to serve the employees of these businesses with a simple, voluntary life product. We have an expanding team of associates who conduct enrollments on behalf of our agencies, allowing us to grow this business at an attractive rate. In addition, these accounts often lead to business life insurance opportunities that are designed to ensure the viability of the businesses in the event of a death of a key employee or business owner.

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Investments Results

Investments Results

The investments segment contributes investment income and investment gains and losses to results of operations. Investment income is generally our primary source of pretax and after-tax profits.

•Investment income – Pretax investment income grew $140 million, or 14%, in 2025, primarily due to an increase in interest income. Interest income grew 19% in 2025, compared with 2024, as net purchases of fixed-maturity securities in recent years and higher average yields for bonds are working to generally offset effects of the low interest rate environment for several years prior to 2022. Dividend income decreased 1% in 2025, compared with 2024. Dividend rates generally have increased, although more slowly than in prior years. Larger than usual net sales of equity securities during the second half of 2024 unfavorably affected dividend income during 2025. Pretax investment income rose 15% in 2024, including increases in interest and dividend income. Average yields in the investment income table below are based on the average invested asset and cash amounts indicated in the table using fixed-maturity securities valued at amortized cost and all other securities at fair value.

•Investment gains and losses – We reported an investment gain in 2025, 2024 and 2023, primarily due to favorable changes in fair values of equity securities even though we continue to hold the securities or as otherwise required by GAAP.

We believe it is useful to analyze our overall investment performance by using total investment return over several years. Total investment return considers changes in unrealized gains and losses that are not included in net income, in addition to net investment income and investment gains and losses that are included in net income. Changes in unrealized gains and losses shown in the table below include other invested assets. Considering total investment gains and losses over several years helps evaluate performance since gains and losses may experience typical variability during shorter periods of time.

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The table below shows total return based on assumptions that simplify cash flow timing that is commonly used in total return measures. This simplified calculation uses data shown in our consolidated financial statements or notes to those statements. Added to invested asset amounts from our consolidated balance sheets are 50% of annual amounts pertaining to invested asset categories included in net cash used in investing activities from our consolidated statements of cash flows. The cash flow amounts are reduced by net gains from investment portfolio securities sales or called bonds, with the net result reduced by 50% to represent estimated new cash invested during each respective year. All new cash is assumed to be invested at the midpoint of the year.

Total investment return of 10.2% in 2025 was higher than the 9.3% return in 2024. The 2025 contribution from the investment income component was enhanced by the net favorable effect of the investment gains and losses components. Comparing contributions for 2025 with 2024, investment income rose $140 million, investment gains increased by $51 million and the invested assets net change in unrealized gains and losses increased by $355 million. The base component of the return calculation, annual average invested assets, was up 11% in 2025. For 2024 compared with 2023, total investment return of 9.3% in 2024 was lower than the 9.9% return in 2023, and included increases in investment income, investment gains, and annual average invested assets. The base component of the return calculation, annual average invested assets, increased 13% in 2024.

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Investment Income

The primary drivers of investment income are highlighted below, followed by additional details of our investment results.

•Interest income increased by $142 million, or 19%, in 2025, compared with 2024. The average fixed-maturity pretax yield increased by 26 basis points in addition to a larger fixed-maturity portfolio that rose 13% on an average amortized cost basis. Interest income in 2024 increased by $133 million, compared with 2023, when that yield increased by 28 basis points while the portfolio rose 15% on an amortized cost basis.

•Dividend income decreased $3 million, or 1%, in 2025. Larger than usual net sales of equity securities during the second half of 2024 unfavorably affected dividend income in 2025. That effect was partially offset by net purchases of equity securities and dividend rates that have generally been increasing, although more slowly in recent quarters. Dividend income rose $1 million, or less than 1%, in 2024 reflecting dividend rates that generally increased, minor asset allocations and larger than usual net sales of equity securities during the second half of 2024.

In 2025, we continued to invest available cash flow in both fixed income and equity securities in a manner that we believe balances current income needs with longer-term invested asset growth goals. As bonds in our generally laddered portfolio mature or are called over the near term, we reinvest with a balanced approach, keeping in mind our long-term strategy and pursuing attractive risk-adjusted after-tax yields. While our bond portfolio more than covers our insurance reserve liabilities, we believe our diversified common stock portfolio of mainly blue chip, dividend-paying companies represents one of our best investment opportunities for the long term. We continually perform fundamental analysis of both industry and company-specific opportunities as well as the potential impact from changes in the interest rate environment and the potential for elevated inflation.

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The table below summarizes pretax yield to amortized costs excluding any book value adjustments due to impairment for bonds in our fixed-maturity portfolio by various maturity periods.

The average pretax yield of 5.60% for fixed-maturity securities acquired during 2025, shown in the table below, was higher than the 5.11% average yield-to-amortized cost of the fixed-maturity securities portfolio at the end of 2025.

We discussed our portfolio strategies in Item 1, Investments Segment. We discuss risks related to our investment income and our fixed-maturity and equity investment portfolios in Item 7A, Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk.

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Total Investment Gains and Losses

Investment gains and losses are recognized on the sales of investments, for certain changes in fair values of securities even though we continue to hold the securities or as otherwise required by GAAP. The change in fair value for equity securities still held is reported in net income, as disclosed in Note 1, Summary of Significant Accounting Policies. Total investment gains and losses in 2025 included $1.448 billion of net gains from the recognition of fair value changes of equity securities still held that prior to 2018 would have been reported in other comprehensive income (OCI) instead of net income. Change in unrealized gains or losses for fixed-maturity securities are included as a component of OCI. Accounting requirements for the allowance for credit losses and impairment charges for write-downs of impaired securities in the fixed-maturity portfolio are disclosed in Item 8, Note 1 of the Consolidated Financial Statements. The factors we consider when evaluating impairments are also discussed in Critical Accounting Estimates, Asset Impairment.

The timing of gains or losses from sales can have a material effect on results in any given period. However, such gains or losses usually have little, if any, effect on total shareholders’ equity because most equity and fixed-maturity investments are carried at fair value.

As appropriate, we buy, hold or sell both fixed-maturity and equity securities on an ongoing basis to help achieve our portfolio objectives. We generally purchase fixed-maturity securities with the intention to hold until maturity. If they no longer meet our investment criteria, they are divested. Sales of fixed-maturity securities are usually due to a change in credit fundamentals. Pretax total investment gains in 2025, 2024 and 2023 were largely due to favorable changes in fair values of equity securities, even though we continue to hold the securities, as shown in the table below. Additional information about investment gains or losses is included in Item 8, Note 2 of the Consolidated Financial Statements.

The table below summarizes total investment gains and losses, before taxes.

There were no fixed maturity securities written down to fair value, due to an intention to be sold, for the years ended December 31, 2025 and 2024. There was one taxable fixed maturity within the real estate sector written down to fair value, due to an intention to be sold with an impairment amount of $4 million for the year ended December 31, 2023.

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Investments Outlook

Equity markets experienced volatility in 2025 from factors such as growth driven by AI, uncertainty related to U.S. trade and tariff policy and government shutdowns. Our focus on managing our portfolio for the long term kept us well positioned to maneuver through short-term fluctuations.

Heading into 2026, we see signs of resilient economic growth and moderating inflation with expectations for Federal Reserve actions that may lower interest rates. While this indicates a favorable investment environment, we must be prepared for changing conditions or other challenges.

Our consistent style and disciplined focus enable us to execute a balanced approach to seek both growth of investment income and portfolio appreciation. We discuss our portfolio strategies in Item 1, Our Segments, Investments Segment.

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Other

Total revenues in 2025 and 2024 for our Other operations increased, compared with the respective prior-year periods, primarily due to higher earned premiums from Cincinnati Re and Cincinnati Global in total. Other also includes noninvestment operations of the parent company and its commercial leasing and financial services subsidiary, CFC Investment Company. Total expenses for Other increased in 2025 and 2024, with the change for both years primarily due to losses and loss expenses and underwriting expenses from Cincinnati Re and Cincinnati Global.

Other income in the table below represents profit or losses before income taxes. For 2025, 2024 and 2023, Other income was driven by underwriting profit for Cincinnati Re and Cincinnati Global. Net results for the combination of Cincinnati Re and Cincinnati Global were an underwriting profit of $88 million in 2025, $158 million in 2024 and $183 million in 2023.

Cincinnati Re represented 65% of Other earned premiums in 2025 and 27% of underwriting profit. Earned premiums in 2025, compared with 2024, grew 2%. The mix of 2025 earned premiums for Cincinnati Re by primary type of insured exposures included 49% for casualty, 35% for property and 16% for specialty. Cincinnati Re in total generated an underwriting profit of $24 million in 2025, $86 million in 2024 and $118 million in 2023.

Cincinnati Global represented 35% of Other earned premiums in 2025 and 73% of underwriting profit. In 2025, earned premiums rose 15%, compared with 2024. Underwriting profit for Cincinnati Global was $64 million in 2025, $72 million in 2024 and $65 million in 2023.

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Taxes

We had a $587 million income tax expense in 2025, compared with $566 million in 2024 and $433 million in 2023. The corporate effective tax rate for 2025 was 19.7% compared with 19.8% in 2024 and 19.0% in 2023.

The changes in our effective tax rate between periods were primarily due to large changes in our net investment gains and losses included in income for the periods, and changes in underwriting income and investment income.

Historically, we have pursued a strategy of investing some portion of cash flow in tax-advantaged, fixed-maturity securities and some in equity securities to minimize our overall tax liability and maximize after-tax earnings. See Item 1, Our Segments, Fixed-Maturity Securities Investments, for further discussion on municipal bond purchases in our fixed-maturity investment portfolio.

For tax years after 2017, for our property casualty insurance subsidiaries, approximately 75% of interest from tax-advantaged, fixed-maturity investments and approximately 40% of dividends from qualified equities are exempt from federal tax after applying proration. For our noninsurance companies, the dividend received deduction exempts 50% of dividends from qualified equities. Our life insurance company does not own tax-advantaged, fixed-maturity investments or equities subject to the dividend received deduction.

Our effective tax rate reconciliation is found in Item 8, Note 11 of the Consolidated Financial Statements.

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